diff --git a/TODO b/TODO
index 75b25fcfce..89583ebbe7 100644
--- a/TODO
+++ b/TODO
@@ -241,14 +241,14 @@ Features:
   a local key to it.
 
 * PidRef conversion work:
-  - pid_is_unwaited() → pidref_is_unwaited()
-  - pid_is_alive() → pidref_is_alive()
-  - is_kernel_thread() → pidref_is_kernel_thread()
-  - pid_is_my_child() → pidref_is_my_child()
-  - get_process_uid() → pidref_get_uid()
+  - cg_pid_get_xyz()
+  - pid_from_same_root_fs()
+  - get_ctty_devnr()
+  - mount_image_in_namespace()
+  - bind_mount_in_namespace()
+  - pid1: sd_notify() receiver should use SCM_PIDFD to authenticate client
   - actually wait for POLLIN on pidref's pidfd in service logic
-  - exec_spawn()
-  - cg_pid_get_unit()
+  - exec_spawn() + safe_fork()
   - openpt_allocate_in_namespace()
   - sd_bus_creds
   - unit_attach_pid_to_cgroup_via_bus()
diff --git a/src/basic/cgroup-util.c b/src/basic/cgroup-util.c
index f4012f1c61..5caf85f443 100644
--- a/src/basic/cgroup-util.c
+++ b/src/basic/cgroup-util.c
@@ -291,7 +291,6 @@ static int cg_kill_items(
         _cleanup_set_free_ Set *allocated_set = NULL;
         bool done = false;
         int r, ret = 0, ret_log_kill = 0;
-        pid_t my_pid;
 
         assert(sig >= 0);
 
@@ -310,11 +309,8 @@ static int cg_kill_items(
                         return -ENOMEM;
         }
 
-        my_pid = getpid_cached();
-
         do {
                 _cleanup_fclose_ FILE *f = NULL;
-                pid_t pid = 0;
                 done = true;
 
                 r = cg_enumerate_items(SYSTEMD_CGROUP_CONTROLLER, path, &f, item);
@@ -325,25 +321,32 @@ static int cg_kill_items(
                         return ret;
                 }
 
-                while ((r = cg_read_pid(f, &pid)) > 0) {
+                for (;;) {
+                        _cleanup_(pidref_done) PidRef pidref = PIDREF_NULL;
 
-                        if ((flags & CGROUP_IGNORE_SELF) && pid == my_pid)
+                        r = cg_read_pidref(f, &pidref);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        if (r == 0)
+                                break;
+
+                        if ((flags & CGROUP_IGNORE_SELF) && pidref_is_self(&pidref))
                                 continue;
 
-                        if (set_get(s, PID_TO_PTR(pid)) == PID_TO_PTR(pid))
+                        if (set_get(s, PID_TO_PTR(pidref.pid)) == PID_TO_PTR(pidref.pid))
                                 continue;
 
                         if (log_kill)
-                                ret_log_kill = log_kill(pid, sig, userdata);
+                                ret_log_kill = log_kill(&pidref, sig, userdata);
 
-                        /* If we haven't killed this process yet, kill
-                         * it */
-                        if (kill(pid, sig) < 0) {
-                                if (ret >= 0 && errno != ESRCH)
-                                        ret = -errno;
+                        /* If we haven't killed this process yet, kill it */
+                        r = pidref_kill(&pidref, sig);
+                        if (r < 0) {
+                                if (ret >= 0 && r != -ESRCH)
+                                        ret = r;
                         } else {
                                 if (flags & CGROUP_SIGCONT)
-                                        (void) kill(pid, SIGCONT);
+                                        (void) pidref_kill(&pidref, SIGCONT);
 
                                 if (ret == 0) {
                                         if (log_kill)
@@ -355,7 +358,7 @@ static int cg_kill_items(
 
                         done = false;
 
-                        r = set_put(s, PID_TO_PTR(pid));
+                        r = set_put(s, PID_TO_PTR(pidref.pid));
                         if (r < 0) {
                                 if (ret >= 0)
                                         return r;
@@ -622,11 +625,11 @@ static int controller_is_v1_accessible(const char *root, const char *controller)
         return laccess(cpath, root ? W_OK : F_OK);
 }
 
-int cg_get_path_and_check(const char *controller, const char *path, const char *suffix, char **fs) {
+int cg_get_path_and_check(const char *controller, const char *path, const char *suffix, char **ret) {
         int r;
 
         assert(controller);
-        assert(fs);
+        assert(ret);
 
         if (!cg_controller_is_valid(controller))
                 return -EINVAL;
@@ -646,7 +649,7 @@ int cg_get_path_and_check(const char *controller, const char *path, const char *
                         return r;
         }
 
-        return cg_get_path(controller, path, suffix, fs);
+        return cg_get_path(controller, path, suffix, ret);
 }
 
 int cg_set_xattr(const char *path, const char *name, const void *value, size_t size, int flags) {
@@ -809,7 +812,7 @@ int cg_pid_get_path(const char *controller, pid_t pid, char **ret_path) {
         }
 }
 
-int cg_pidref_get_path(const char *controller, PidRef *pidref, char **ret_path) {
+int cg_pidref_get_path(const char *controller, const PidRef *pidref, char **ret_path) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *path = NULL;
         int r;
 
@@ -1052,30 +1055,30 @@ int cg_split_spec(const char *spec, char **ret_controller, char **ret_path) {
         return 0;
 }
 
-int cg_mangle_path(const char *path, char **result) {
+int cg_mangle_path(const char *path, char **ret) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *c = NULL, *p = NULL;
         int r;
 
         assert(path);
-        assert(result);
+        assert(ret);
 
         /* First, check if it already is a filesystem path */
         if (path_startswith(path, "/sys/fs/cgroup"))
-                return path_simplify_alloc(path, result);
+                return path_simplify_alloc(path, ret);
 
         /* Otherwise, treat it as cg spec */
         r = cg_split_spec(path, &c, &p);
         if (r < 0)
                 return r;
 
-        return cg_get_path(c ?: SYSTEMD_CGROUP_CONTROLLER, p ?: "/", NULL, result);
+        return cg_get_path(c ?: SYSTEMD_CGROUP_CONTROLLER, p ?: "/", NULL, ret);
 }
 
-int cg_get_root_path(char **path) {
+int cg_get_root_path(char **ret_path) {
         char *p, *e;
         int r;
 
-        assert(path);
+        assert(ret_path);
 
         r = cg_pid_get_path(SYSTEMD_CGROUP_CONTROLLER, 1, &p);
         if (r < 0)
@@ -1089,17 +1092,17 @@ int cg_get_root_path(char **path) {
         if (e)
                 *e = 0;
 
-        *path = p;
+        *ret_path = p;
         return 0;
 }
 
-int cg_shift_path(const char *cgroup, const char *root, const char **shifted) {
+int cg_shift_path(const char *cgroup, const char *root, const char **ret_shifted) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *rt = NULL;
         char *p;
         int r;
 
         assert(cgroup);
-        assert(shifted);
+        assert(ret_shifted);
 
         if (!root) {
                 /* If the root was specified let's use that, otherwise
@@ -1114,20 +1117,20 @@ int cg_shift_path(const char *cgroup, const char *root, const char **shifted) {
 
         p = path_startswith(cgroup, root);
         if (p && p > cgroup)
-                *shifted = p - 1;
+                *ret_shifted = p - 1;
         else
-                *shifted = cgroup;
+                *ret_shifted = cgroup;
 
         return 0;
 }
 
-int cg_pid_get_path_shifted(pid_t pid, const char *root, char **cgroup) {
+int cg_pid_get_path_shifted(pid_t pid, const char *root, char **ret_cgroup) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *raw = NULL;
         const char *c;
         int r;
 
         assert(pid >= 0);
-        assert(cgroup);
+        assert(ret_cgroup);
 
         r = cg_pid_get_path(SYSTEMD_CGROUP_CONTROLLER, pid, &raw);
         if (r < 0)
@@ -1138,7 +1141,7 @@ int cg_pid_get_path_shifted(pid_t pid, const char *root, char **cgroup) {
                 return r;
 
         if (c == raw)
-                *cgroup = TAKE_PTR(raw);
+                *ret_cgroup = TAKE_PTR(raw);
         else {
                 char *n;
 
@@ -1146,18 +1149,18 @@ int cg_pid_get_path_shifted(pid_t pid, const char *root, char **cgroup) {
                 if (!n)
                         return -ENOMEM;
 
-                *cgroup = n;
+                *ret_cgroup = n;
         }
 
         return 0;
 }
 
-int cg_path_decode_unit(const char *cgroup, char **unit) {
+int cg_path_decode_unit(const char *cgroup, char **ret_unit) {
         char *c, *s;
         size_t n;
 
         assert(cgroup);
-        assert(unit);
+        assert(ret_unit);
 
         n = strcspn(cgroup, "/");
         if (n < 3)
@@ -1173,7 +1176,7 @@ int cg_path_decode_unit(const char *cgroup, char **unit) {
         if (!s)
                 return -ENOMEM;
 
-        *unit = s;
+        *ret_unit = s;
         return 0;
 }
 
@@ -1261,17 +1264,17 @@ int cg_path_get_unit_path(const char *path, char **ret) {
         return 0;
 }
 
-int cg_pid_get_unit(pid_t pid, char **unit) {
+int cg_pid_get_unit(pid_t pid, char **ret_unit) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *cgroup = NULL;
         int r;
 
-        assert(unit);
+        assert(ret_unit);
 
         r = cg_pid_get_path_shifted(pid, NULL, &cgroup);
         if (r < 0)
                 return r;
 
-        return cg_path_get_unit(cgroup, unit);
+        return cg_path_get_unit(cgroup, ret_unit);
 }
 
 /**
@@ -1381,20 +1384,20 @@ int cg_path_get_user_unit(const char *path, char **ret) {
         return cg_path_get_unit(t, ret);
 }
 
-int cg_pid_get_user_unit(pid_t pid, char **unit) {
+int cg_pid_get_user_unit(pid_t pid, char **ret_unit) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *cgroup = NULL;
         int r;
 
-        assert(unit);
+        assert(ret_unit);
 
         r = cg_pid_get_path_shifted(pid, NULL, &cgroup);
         if (r < 0)
                 return r;
 
-        return cg_path_get_user_unit(cgroup, unit);
+        return cg_path_get_user_unit(cgroup, ret_unit);
 }
 
-int cg_path_get_machine_name(const char *path, char **machine) {
+int cg_path_get_machine_name(const char *path, char **ret_machine) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *u = NULL;
         const char *sl;
         int r;
@@ -1404,20 +1407,20 @@ int cg_path_get_machine_name(const char *path, char **machine) {
                 return r;
 
         sl = strjoina("/run/systemd/machines/unit:", u);
-        return readlink_malloc(sl, machine);
+        return readlink_malloc(sl, ret_machine);
 }
 
-int cg_pid_get_machine_name(pid_t pid, char **machine) {
+int cg_pid_get_machine_name(pid_t pid, char **ret_machine) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *cgroup = NULL;
         int r;
 
-        assert(machine);
+        assert(ret_machine);
 
         r = cg_pid_get_path_shifted(pid, NULL, &cgroup);
         if (r < 0)
                 return r;
 
-        return cg_path_get_machine_name(cgroup, machine);
+        return cg_path_get_machine_name(cgroup, ret_machine);
 }
 
 int cg_path_get_cgroupid(const char *path, uint64_t *ret) {
@@ -1436,7 +1439,7 @@ int cg_path_get_cgroupid(const char *path, uint64_t *ret) {
         return 0;
 }
 
-int cg_path_get_session(const char *path, char **session) {
+int cg_path_get_session(const char *path, char **ret_session) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *unit = NULL;
         char *start, *end;
         int r;
@@ -1458,20 +1461,20 @@ int cg_path_get_session(const char *path, char **session) {
         if (!session_id_valid(start))
                 return -ENXIO;
 
-        if (session) {
+        if (ret_session) {
                 char *rr;
 
                 rr = strdup(start);
                 if (!rr)
                         return -ENOMEM;
 
-                *session = rr;
+                *ret_session = rr;
         }
 
         return 0;
 }
 
-int cg_pid_get_session(pid_t pid, char **session) {
+int cg_pid_get_session(pid_t pid, char **ret_session) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *cgroup = NULL;
         int r;
 
@@ -1479,10 +1482,10 @@ int cg_pid_get_session(pid_t pid, char **session) {
         if (r < 0)
                 return r;
 
-        return cg_path_get_session(cgroup, session);
+        return cg_path_get_session(cgroup, ret_session);
 }
 
-int cg_path_get_owner_uid(const char *path, uid_t *uid) {
+int cg_path_get_owner_uid(const char *path, uid_t *ret_uid) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *slice = NULL;
         char *start, *end;
         int r;
@@ -1496,18 +1499,19 @@ int cg_path_get_owner_uid(const char *path, uid_t *uid) {
         start = startswith(slice, "user-");
         if (!start)
                 return -ENXIO;
+
         end = endswith(start, ".slice");
         if (!end)
                 return -ENXIO;
 
         *end = 0;
-        if (parse_uid(start, uid) < 0)
+        if (parse_uid(start, ret_uid) < 0)
                 return -ENXIO;
 
         return 0;
 }
 
-int cg_pid_get_owner_uid(pid_t pid, uid_t *uid) {
+int cg_pid_get_owner_uid(pid_t pid, uid_t *ret_uid) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *cgroup = NULL;
         int r;
 
@@ -1515,14 +1519,14 @@ int cg_pid_get_owner_uid(pid_t pid, uid_t *uid) {
         if (r < 0)
                 return r;
 
-        return cg_path_get_owner_uid(cgroup, uid);
+        return cg_path_get_owner_uid(cgroup, ret_uid);
 }
 
-int cg_path_get_slice(const char *p, char **slice) {
+int cg_path_get_slice(const char *p, char **ret_slice) {
         const char *e = NULL;
 
         assert(p);
-        assert(slice);
+        assert(ret_slice);
 
         /* Finds the right-most slice unit from the beginning, but
          * stops before we come to the first non-slice unit. */
@@ -1542,11 +1546,11 @@ int cg_path_get_slice(const char *p, char **slice) {
                                 if (!s)
                                         return -ENOMEM;
 
-                                *slice = s;
+                                *ret_slice = s;
                                 return 0;
                         }
 
-                        return cg_path_decode_unit(e, slice);
+                        return cg_path_decode_unit(e, ret_slice);
                 }
 
                 e = p;
@@ -1554,44 +1558,44 @@ int cg_path_get_slice(const char *p, char **slice) {
         }
 }
 
-int cg_pid_get_slice(pid_t pid, char **slice) {
+int cg_pid_get_slice(pid_t pid, char **ret_slice) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *cgroup = NULL;
         int r;
 
-        assert(slice);
+        assert(ret_slice);
 
         r = cg_pid_get_path_shifted(pid, NULL, &cgroup);
         if (r < 0)
                 return r;
 
-        return cg_path_get_slice(cgroup, slice);
+        return cg_path_get_slice(cgroup, ret_slice);
 }
 
-int cg_path_get_user_slice(const char *p, char **slice) {
+int cg_path_get_user_slice(const char *p, char **ret_slice) {
         const char *t;
         assert(p);
-        assert(slice);
+        assert(ret_slice);
 
         t = skip_user_prefix(p);
         if (!t)
                 return -ENXIO;
 
-        /* And now it looks pretty much the same as for a system
-         * slice, so let's just use the same parser from here on. */
-        return cg_path_get_slice(t, slice);
+        /* And now it looks pretty much the same as for a system slice, so let's just use the same parser
+         * from here on. */
+        return cg_path_get_slice(t, ret_slice);
 }
 
-int cg_pid_get_user_slice(pid_t pid, char **slice) {
+int cg_pid_get_user_slice(pid_t pid, char **ret_slice) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *cgroup = NULL;
         int r;
 
-        assert(slice);
+        assert(ret_slice);
 
         r = cg_pid_get_path_shifted(pid, NULL, &cgroup);
         if (r < 0)
                 return r;
 
-        return cg_path_get_user_slice(cgroup, slice);
+        return cg_path_get_user_slice(cgroup, ret_slice);
 }
 
 bool cg_needs_escape(const char *p) {
diff --git a/src/basic/cgroup-util.h b/src/basic/cgroup-util.h
index a64bdcf7a9..1022caf23c 100644
--- a/src/basic/cgroup-util.h
+++ b/src/basic/cgroup-util.h
@@ -191,20 +191,20 @@ typedef enum CGroupFlags {
         CGROUP_REMOVE      = 1 << 2,
 } CGroupFlags;
 
-typedef int (*cg_kill_log_func_t)(pid_t pid, int sig, void *userdata);
+typedef int (*cg_kill_log_func_t)(const PidRef *pid, int sig, void *userdata);
 
 int cg_kill(const char *path, int sig, CGroupFlags flags, Set *s, cg_kill_log_func_t kill_log, void *userdata);
 int cg_kill_kernel_sigkill(const char *path);
 int cg_kill_recursive(const char *path, int sig, CGroupFlags flags, Set *s, cg_kill_log_func_t kill_log, void *userdata);
 
 int cg_split_spec(const char *spec, char **ret_controller, char **ret_path);
-int cg_mangle_path(const char *path, char **result);
+int cg_mangle_path(const char *path, char **ret);
 
-int cg_get_path(const char *controller, const char *path, const char *suffix, char **fs);
-int cg_get_path_and_check(const char *controller, const char *path, const char *suffix, char **fs);
+int cg_get_path(const char *controller, const char *path, const char *suffix, char **ret);
+int cg_get_path_and_check(const char *controller, const char *path, const char *suffix, char **ret);
 
-int cg_pid_get_path(const char *controller, pid_t pid, char **path);
-int cg_pidref_get_path(const char *controller, PidRef *pidref, char **path);
+int cg_pid_get_path(const char *controller, pid_t pid, char **ret);
+int cg_pidref_get_path(const char *controller, const PidRef *pidref, char **ret);
 
 int cg_rmdir(const char *controller, const char *path);
 
@@ -263,27 +263,27 @@ int cg_is_empty_recursive(const char *controller, const char *path);
 int cg_get_root_path(char **path);
 
 int cg_path_get_cgroupid(const char *path, uint64_t *ret);
-int cg_path_get_session(const char *path, char **session);
-int cg_path_get_owner_uid(const char *path, uid_t *uid);
-int cg_path_get_unit(const char *path, char **unit);
-int cg_path_get_unit_path(const char *path, char **unit);
-int cg_path_get_user_unit(const char *path, char **unit);
-int cg_path_get_machine_name(const char *path, char **machine);
-int cg_path_get_slice(const char *path, char **slice);
-int cg_path_get_user_slice(const char *path, char **slice);
+int cg_path_get_session(const char *path, char **ret_session);
+int cg_path_get_owner_uid(const char *path, uid_t *ret_uid);
+int cg_path_get_unit(const char *path, char **ret_unit);
+int cg_path_get_unit_path(const char *path, char **ret_unit);
+int cg_path_get_user_unit(const char *path, char **ret_unit);
+int cg_path_get_machine_name(const char *path, char **ret_machine);
+int cg_path_get_slice(const char *path, char **ret_slice);
+int cg_path_get_user_slice(const char *path, char **ret_slice);
 
-int cg_shift_path(const char *cgroup, const char *cached_root, const char **shifted);
-int cg_pid_get_path_shifted(pid_t pid, const char *cached_root, char **cgroup);
+int cg_shift_path(const char *cgroup, const char *cached_root, const char **ret_shifted);
+int cg_pid_get_path_shifted(pid_t pid, const char *cached_root, char **ret_cgroup);
 
-int cg_pid_get_session(pid_t pid, char **session);
-int cg_pid_get_owner_uid(pid_t pid, uid_t *uid);
-int cg_pid_get_unit(pid_t pid, char **unit);
-int cg_pid_get_user_unit(pid_t pid, char **unit);
-int cg_pid_get_machine_name(pid_t pid, char **machine);
-int cg_pid_get_slice(pid_t pid, char **slice);
-int cg_pid_get_user_slice(pid_t pid, char **slice);
+int cg_pid_get_session(pid_t pid, char **ret_session);
+int cg_pid_get_owner_uid(pid_t pid, uid_t *ret_uid);
+int cg_pid_get_unit(pid_t pid, char **ret_unit);
+int cg_pid_get_user_unit(pid_t pid, char **ret_unit);
+int cg_pid_get_machine_name(pid_t pid, char **ret_machine);
+int cg_pid_get_slice(pid_t pid, char **ret_slice);
+int cg_pid_get_user_slice(pid_t pid, char **ret_slice);
 
-int cg_path_decode_unit(const char *cgroup, char **unit);
+int cg_path_decode_unit(const char *cgroup, char **ret_unit);
 
 bool cg_needs_escape(const char *p);
 int cg_escape(const char *p, char **ret);
diff --git a/src/basic/log.c b/src/basic/log.c
index 7181f3a2ad..17b9b2afe0 100644
--- a/src/basic/log.c
+++ b/src/basic/log.c
@@ -1451,7 +1451,7 @@ void log_received_signal(int level, const struct signalfd_siginfo *si) {
         if (pid_is_valid(si->ssi_pid)) {
                 _cleanup_free_ char *p = NULL;
 
-                (void) get_process_comm(si->ssi_pid, &p);
+                (void) pid_get_comm(si->ssi_pid, &p);
 
                 log_full(level,
                          "Received SIG%s from PID %"PRIu32" (%s).",
diff --git a/src/basic/pidref.c b/src/basic/pidref.c
index a9fbbf2c90..aa4ca063ba 100644
--- a/src/basic/pidref.c
+++ b/src/basic/pidref.c
@@ -186,7 +186,7 @@ int pidref_new_from_pid(pid_t pid, PidRef **ret) {
         return 0;
 }
 
-int pidref_kill(PidRef *pidref, int sig) {
+int pidref_kill(const PidRef *pidref, int sig) {
 
         if (!pidref)
                 return -ESRCH;
@@ -200,7 +200,7 @@ int pidref_kill(PidRef *pidref, int sig) {
         return -ESRCH;
 }
 
-int pidref_kill_and_sigcont(PidRef *pidref, int sig) {
+int pidref_kill_and_sigcont(const PidRef *pidref, int sig) {
         int r;
 
         r = pidref_kill(pidref, sig);
@@ -213,7 +213,7 @@ int pidref_kill_and_sigcont(PidRef *pidref, int sig) {
         return 0;
 }
 
-int pidref_sigqueue(PidRef *pidref, int sig, int value) {
+int pidref_sigqueue(const PidRef *pidref, int sig, int value) {
 
         if (!pidref)
                 return -ESRCH;
@@ -240,7 +240,7 @@ int pidref_sigqueue(PidRef *pidref, int sig, int value) {
         return -ESRCH;
 }
 
-int pidref_verify(PidRef *pidref) {
+int pidref_verify(const PidRef *pidref) {
         int r;
 
         /* This is a helper that is supposed to be called after reading information from procfs via a
@@ -250,6 +250,9 @@ int pidref_verify(PidRef *pidref) {
         if (!pidref_is_set(pidref))
                 return -ESRCH;
 
+        if (pidref->pid == 1)
+                return 1; /* PID 1 can never go away, hence never be recycled to a different process → return 1 */
+
         if (pidref->fd < 0)
                 return 0; /* If we don't have a pidfd we cannot validate it, hence we assume it's all OK → return 0 */
 
@@ -260,6 +263,13 @@ int pidref_verify(PidRef *pidref) {
         return 1; /* We have a pidfd and it still points to the PID we have, hence all is *really* OK → return 1 */
 }
 
+bool pidref_is_self(const PidRef *pidref) {
+        if (!pidref)
+                return false;
+
+        return pidref->pid == getpid_cached();
+}
+
 static void pidref_hash_func(const PidRef *pidref, struct siphash *state) {
         siphash24_compress(&pidref->pid, sizeof(pidref->pid), state);
 }
diff --git a/src/basic/pidref.h b/src/basic/pidref.h
index b0427923e9..0fdc02a54b 100644
--- a/src/basic/pidref.h
+++ b/src/basic/pidref.h
@@ -43,6 +43,8 @@ static inline int pidref_set_self(PidRef *pidref) {
         return pidref_set_pid(pidref, 0);
 }
 
+bool pidref_is_self(const PidRef *pidref);
+
 void pidref_done(PidRef *pidref);
 PidRef *pidref_free(PidRef *pidref);
 DEFINE_TRIVIAL_CLEANUP_FUNC(PidRef*, pidref_free);
@@ -51,11 +53,11 @@ int pidref_dup(const PidRef *pidref, PidRef **ret);
 
 int pidref_new_from_pid(pid_t pid, PidRef **ret);
 
-int pidref_kill(PidRef *pidref, int sig);
-int pidref_kill_and_sigcont(PidRef *pidref, int sig);
-int pidref_sigqueue(PidRef *pidfref, int sig, int value);
+int pidref_kill(const PidRef *pidref, int sig);
+int pidref_kill_and_sigcont(const PidRef *pidref, int sig);
+int pidref_sigqueue(const PidRef *pidfref, int sig, int value);
 
-int pidref_verify(PidRef *pidref);
+int pidref_verify(const PidRef *pidref);
 
 #define TAKE_PIDREF(p) TAKE_GENERIC((p), PidRef, PIDREF_NULL)
 
diff --git a/src/basic/proc-cmdline.c b/src/basic/proc-cmdline.c
index 48036b959c..e64f9c85d9 100644
--- a/src/basic/proc-cmdline.c
+++ b/src/basic/proc-cmdline.c
@@ -128,7 +128,7 @@ int proc_cmdline(char **ret) {
         }
 
         if (detect_container() > 0)
-                return get_process_cmdline(1, SIZE_MAX, 0, ret);
+                return pid_get_cmdline(1, SIZE_MAX, 0, ret);
         else
                 return read_full_file("/proc/cmdline", ret, NULL);
 }
@@ -147,7 +147,7 @@ static int proc_cmdline_strv_internal(char ***ret, bool filter_pid1_args) {
         if (detect_container() > 0) {
                 _cleanup_strv_free_ char **args = NULL;
 
-                r = get_process_cmdline_strv(1, /* flags = */ 0, &args);
+                r = pid_get_cmdline_strv(1, /* flags = */ 0, &args);
                 if (r < 0)
                         return r;
 
diff --git a/src/basic/process-util.c b/src/basic/process-util.c
index 6e51528065..c5883b05d1 100644
--- a/src/basic/process-util.c
+++ b/src/basic/process-util.c
@@ -25,6 +25,7 @@
 #include "alloc-util.h"
 #include "architecture.h"
 #include "argv-util.h"
+#include "dirent-util.h"
 #include "env-file.h"
 #include "env-util.h"
 #include "errno-util.h"
@@ -94,7 +95,7 @@ static int get_process_state(pid_t pid) {
         return (unsigned char) state;
 }
 
-int get_process_comm(pid_t pid, char **ret) {
+int pid_get_comm(pid_t pid, char **ret) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *escaped = NULL, *comm = NULL;
         int r;
 
@@ -132,15 +133,35 @@ int get_process_comm(pid_t pid, char **ret) {
         return 0;
 }
 
-static int get_process_cmdline_nulstr(
+int pidref_get_comm(const PidRef *pid, char **ret) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *comm = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        if (!pidref_is_set(pid))
+                return -ESRCH;
+
+        r = pid_get_comm(pid->pid, &comm);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = pidref_verify(pid);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        if (ret)
+                *ret = TAKE_PTR(comm);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int pid_get_cmdline_nulstr(
                 pid_t pid,
                 size_t max_size,
                 ProcessCmdlineFlags flags,
                 char **ret,
                 size_t *ret_size) {
 
+        _cleanup_free_ char *t = NULL;
         const char *p;
-        char *t;
         size_t k;
         int r;
 
@@ -164,18 +185,17 @@ static int get_process_cmdline_nulstr(
                 return r;
 
         if (k == 0) {
-                t = mfree(t);
-
                 if (!(flags & PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK))
                         return -ENOENT;
 
                 /* Kernel threads have no argv[] */
                 _cleanup_free_ char *comm = NULL;
 
-                r = get_process_comm(pid, &comm);
+                r = pid_get_comm(pid, &comm);
                 if (r < 0)
                         return r;
 
+                free(t);
                 t = strjoin("[", comm, "]");
                 if (!t)
                         return -ENOMEM;
@@ -186,12 +206,15 @@ static int get_process_cmdline_nulstr(
                         t[max_size] = '\0';
         }
 
-        *ret = t;
-        *ret_size = k;
+        if (ret)
+                *ret = TAKE_PTR(t);
+        if (ret_size)
+                *ret_size = k;
+
         return r;
 }
 
-int get_process_cmdline(pid_t pid, size_t max_columns, ProcessCmdlineFlags flags, char **ret) {
+int pid_get_cmdline(pid_t pid, size_t max_columns, ProcessCmdlineFlags flags, char **ret) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *t = NULL;
         size_t k;
         char *ans;
@@ -213,7 +236,7 @@ int get_process_cmdline(pid_t pid, size_t max_columns, ProcessCmdlineFlags flags
          * Returns -ESRCH if the process doesn't exist, and -ENOENT if the process has no command line (and
          * PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK is not specified). Returns 0 and sets *line otherwise. */
 
-        int full = get_process_cmdline_nulstr(pid, max_columns, flags, &t, &k);
+        int full = pid_get_cmdline_nulstr(pid, max_columns, flags, &t, &k);
         if (full < 0)
                 return full;
 
@@ -256,7 +279,27 @@ int get_process_cmdline(pid_t pid, size_t max_columns, ProcessCmdlineFlags flags
         return 0;
 }
 
-int get_process_cmdline_strv(pid_t pid, ProcessCmdlineFlags flags, char ***ret) {
+int pidref_get_cmdline(const PidRef *pid, size_t max_columns, ProcessCmdlineFlags flags, char **ret) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *s = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        if (!pidref_is_set(pid))
+                return -ESRCH;
+
+        r = pid_get_cmdline(pid->pid, max_columns, flags, &s);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = pidref_verify(pid);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        if (ret)
+                *ret = TAKE_PTR(s);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+int pid_get_cmdline_strv(pid_t pid, ProcessCmdlineFlags flags, char ***ret) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *t = NULL;
         char **args;
         size_t k;
@@ -266,7 +309,7 @@ int get_process_cmdline_strv(pid_t pid, ProcessCmdlineFlags flags, char ***ret)
         assert((flags & ~PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK) == 0);
         assert(ret);
 
-        r = get_process_cmdline_nulstr(pid, SIZE_MAX, flags, &t, &k);
+        r = pid_get_cmdline_nulstr(pid, SIZE_MAX, flags, &t, &k);
         if (r < 0)
                 return r;
 
@@ -278,6 +321,27 @@ int get_process_cmdline_strv(pid_t pid, ProcessCmdlineFlags flags, char ***ret)
         return 0;
 }
 
+int pidref_get_cmdline_strv(const PidRef *pid, ProcessCmdlineFlags flags, char ***ret) {
+        _cleanup_strv_free_ char **args = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        if (!pidref_is_set(pid))
+                return -ESRCH;
+
+        r = pid_get_cmdline_strv(pid->pid, flags, &args);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = pidref_verify(pid);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        if (ret)
+                *ret = TAKE_PTR(args);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
 int container_get_leader(const char *machine, pid_t *pid) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *s = NULL, *class = NULL;
         const char *p;
@@ -346,7 +410,7 @@ int namespace_get_leader(pid_t pid, NamespaceType type, pid_t *ret) {
         }
 }
 
-int is_kernel_thread(pid_t pid) {
+int pid_is_kernel_thread(pid_t pid) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *line = NULL;
         unsigned long long flags;
         size_t l, i;
@@ -404,6 +468,23 @@ int is_kernel_thread(pid_t pid) {
         return !!(flags & PF_KTHREAD);
 }
 
+int pidref_is_kernel_thread(const PidRef *pid) {
+        int result, r;
+
+        if (!pidref_is_set(pid))
+                return -ESRCH;
+
+        result = pid_is_kernel_thread(pid->pid);
+        if (result < 0)
+                return result;
+
+        r = pidref_verify(pid); /* Verify that the PID wasn't reused since */
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        return result;
+}
+
 int get_process_capeff(pid_t pid, char **ret) {
         const char *p;
         int r;
@@ -492,7 +573,8 @@ static int get_process_id(pid_t pid, const char *field, uid_t *ret) {
         return -EIO;
 }
 
-int get_process_uid(pid_t pid, uid_t *ret) {
+int pid_get_uid(pid_t pid, uid_t *ret) {
+        assert(ret);
 
         if (pid == 0 || pid == getpid_cached()) {
                 *ret = getuid();
@@ -502,6 +584,26 @@ int get_process_uid(pid_t pid, uid_t *ret) {
         return get_process_id(pid, "Uid:", ret);
 }
 
+int pidref_get_uid(const PidRef *pid, uid_t *ret) {
+        uid_t uid;
+        int r;
+
+        if (!pidref_is_set(pid))
+                return -ESRCH;
+
+        r = pid_get_uid(pid->pid, &uid);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = pidref_verify(pid);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        if (ret)
+                *ret = uid;
+        return 0;
+}
+
 int get_process_gid(pid_t pid, gid_t *ret) {
 
         if (pid == 0 || pid == getpid_cached()) {
@@ -692,7 +794,7 @@ int wait_for_terminate_and_check(const char *name, pid_t pid, WaitFlags flags) {
         assert(pid > 1);
 
         if (!name) {
-                r = get_process_comm(pid, &buffer);
+                r = pid_get_comm(pid, &buffer);
                 if (r < 0)
                         log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to acquire process name of " PID_FMT ", ignoring: %m", pid);
                 else
@@ -914,6 +1016,9 @@ int pid_is_my_child(pid_t pid) {
         pid_t ppid;
         int r;
 
+        if (pid < 0)
+                return -ESRCH;
+
         if (pid <= 1)
                 return false;
 
@@ -924,11 +1029,28 @@ int pid_is_my_child(pid_t pid) {
         return ppid == getpid_cached();
 }
 
-bool pid_is_unwaited(pid_t pid) {
+int pidref_is_my_child(const PidRef *pid) {
+        int r, result;
+
+        if (!pidref_is_set(pid))
+                return -ESRCH;
+
+        result = pid_is_my_child(pid->pid);
+        if (result < 0)
+                return result;
+
+        r = pidref_verify(pid);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        return result;
+}
+
+int pid_is_unwaited(pid_t pid) {
         /* Checks whether a PID is still valid at all, including a zombie */
 
         if (pid < 0)
-                return false;
+                return -ESRCH;
 
         if (pid <= 1) /* If we or PID 1 would be dead and have been waited for, this code would not be running */
                 return true;
@@ -942,13 +1064,31 @@ bool pid_is_unwaited(pid_t pid) {
         return errno != ESRCH;
 }
 
-bool pid_is_alive(pid_t pid) {
+int pidref_is_unwaited(const PidRef *pid) {
+        int r;
+
+        if (!pidref_is_set(pid))
+                return -ESRCH;
+
+        if (pid->pid == 1 || pidref_is_self(pid))
+                return true;
+
+        r = pidref_kill(pid, 0);
+        if (r == -ESRCH)
+                return false;
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        return true;
+}
+
+int pid_is_alive(pid_t pid) {
         int r;
 
         /* Checks whether a PID is still valid and not a zombie */
 
         if (pid < 0)
-                return false;
+                return -ESRCH;
 
         if (pid <= 1) /* If we or PID 1 would be a zombie, this code would not be running */
                 return true;
@@ -957,10 +1097,31 @@ bool pid_is_alive(pid_t pid) {
                 return true;
 
         r = get_process_state(pid);
-        if (IN_SET(r, -ESRCH, 'Z'))
+        if (r == -ESRCH)
                 return false;
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
 
-        return true;
+        return r != 'Z';
+}
+
+int pidref_is_alive(const PidRef *pidref) {
+        int r, result;
+
+        if (!pidref_is_set(pidref))
+                return -ESRCH;
+
+        result = pid_is_alive(pidref->pid);
+        if (result < 0)
+                return result;
+
+        r = pidref_verify(pidref);
+        if (r == -ESRCH)
+                return false;
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        return result;
 }
 
 int pid_from_same_root_fs(pid_t pid) {
@@ -1803,6 +1964,74 @@ fail:
         return -r;
 }
 
+int proc_dir_open(DIR **ret) {
+        DIR *d;
+
+        assert(ret);
+
+        d = opendir("/proc");
+        if (!d)
+                return -errno;
+
+        *ret = d;
+        return 0;
+}
+
+int proc_dir_read(DIR *d, pid_t *ret) {
+        assert(d);
+
+        for (;;) {
+                struct dirent *de;
+
+                errno = 0;
+                de = readdir_no_dot(d);
+                if (!de) {
+                        if (errno != 0)
+                                return -errno;
+
+                        break;
+                }
+
+                if (!IN_SET(de->d_type, DT_DIR, DT_UNKNOWN))
+                        continue;
+
+                if (parse_pid(de->d_name, ret) >= 0)
+                        return 1;
+        }
+
+        if (ret)
+                *ret = 0;
+        return 0;
+}
+
+int proc_dir_read_pidref(DIR *d, PidRef *ret) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(d);
+
+        for (;;) {
+                pid_t pid;
+
+                r = proc_dir_read(d, &pid);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                if (r == 0)
+                        break;
+
+                r = pidref_set_pid(ret, pid);
+                if (r == -ESRCH) /* gone by now? skip it */
+                        continue;
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                return 1;
+        }
+
+        if (ret)
+                *ret = PIDREF_NULL;
+        return 0;
+}
+
 static const char *const sigchld_code_table[] = {
         [CLD_EXITED] = "exited",
         [CLD_KILLED] = "killed",
diff --git a/src/basic/process-util.h b/src/basic/process-util.h
index 7dfa510b93..a18a730936 100644
--- a/src/basic/process-util.h
+++ b/src/basic/process-util.h
@@ -39,11 +39,15 @@ typedef enum ProcessCmdlineFlags {
         PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE_POSIX   = 1 << 3,
 } ProcessCmdlineFlags;
 
-int get_process_comm(pid_t pid, char **ret);
-int get_process_cmdline(pid_t pid, size_t max_columns, ProcessCmdlineFlags flags, char **ret);
-int get_process_cmdline_strv(pid_t pid, ProcessCmdlineFlags flags, char ***ret);
+int pid_get_comm(pid_t pid, char **ret);
+int pidref_get_comm(const PidRef *pid, char **ret);
+int pid_get_cmdline(pid_t pid, size_t max_columns, ProcessCmdlineFlags flags, char **ret);
+int pidref_get_cmdline(const PidRef *pid, size_t max_columns, ProcessCmdlineFlags flags, char **ret);
+int pid_get_cmdline_strv(pid_t pid, ProcessCmdlineFlags flags, char ***ret);
+int pidref_get_cmdline_strv(const PidRef *pid, ProcessCmdlineFlags flags, char ***ret);
 int get_process_exe(pid_t pid, char **ret);
-int get_process_uid(pid_t pid, uid_t *ret);
+int pid_get_uid(pid_t pid, uid_t *ret);
+int pidref_get_uid(const PidRef *pid, uid_t *ret);
 int get_process_gid(pid_t pid, gid_t *ret);
 int get_process_capeff(pid_t pid, char **ret);
 int get_process_cwd(pid_t pid, char **ret);
@@ -77,13 +81,17 @@ void sigkill_nowaitp(pid_t *pid);
 
 int kill_and_sigcont(pid_t pid, int sig);
 
-int is_kernel_thread(pid_t pid);
+int pid_is_kernel_thread(pid_t pid);
+int pidref_is_kernel_thread(const PidRef *pid);
 
 int getenv_for_pid(pid_t pid, const char *field, char **_value);
 
-bool pid_is_alive(pid_t pid);
-bool pid_is_unwaited(pid_t pid);
+int pid_is_alive(pid_t pid);
+int pidref_is_alive(const PidRef *pidref);
+int pid_is_unwaited(pid_t pid);
+int pidref_is_unwaited(const PidRef *pidref);
 int pid_is_my_child(pid_t pid);
+int pidref_is_my_child(const PidRef *pidref);
 int pid_from_same_root_fs(pid_t pid);
 
 bool is_main_thread(void);
@@ -215,3 +223,7 @@ int is_reaper_process(void);
 int make_reaper_process(bool b);
 
 int posix_spawn_wrapper(const char *path, char *const *argv, char *const *envp, pid_t *ret_pid);
+
+int proc_dir_open(DIR **ret);
+int proc_dir_read(DIR *d, pid_t *ret);
+int proc_dir_read_pidref(DIR *d, PidRef *ret);
diff --git a/src/cgtop/cgtop.c b/src/cgtop/cgtop.c
index a6adb8ce31..e34da7cf72 100644
--- a/src/cgtop/cgtop.c
+++ b/src/cgtop/cgtop.c
@@ -209,7 +209,7 @@ static int process(
                 g->n_tasks = 0;
                 while (cg_read_pid(f, &pid) > 0) {
 
-                        if (arg_count == COUNT_USERSPACE_PROCESSES && is_kernel_thread(pid) > 0)
+                        if (arg_count == COUNT_USERSPACE_PROCESSES && pid_is_kernel_thread(pid) > 0)
                                 continue;
 
                         g->n_tasks++;
diff --git a/src/core/automount.c b/src/core/automount.c
index 8df715b1af..4de537fc42 100644
--- a/src/core/automount.c
+++ b/src/core/automount.c
@@ -991,7 +991,7 @@ static int automount_dispatch_io(sd_event_source *s, int fd, uint32_t events, vo
                 if (packet.v5_packet.pid > 0) {
                         _cleanup_free_ char *p = NULL;
 
-                        (void) get_process_comm(packet.v5_packet.pid, &p);
+                        (void) pid_get_comm(packet.v5_packet.pid, &p);
                         log_unit_info(UNIT(a), "Got automount request for %s, triggered by %"PRIu32" (%s)", a->where, packet.v5_packet.pid, strna(p));
                 } else
                         log_unit_debug(UNIT(a), "Got direct mount request on %s", a->where);
diff --git a/src/core/cgroup.c b/src/core/cgroup.c
index dd46bf9237..65851ae6e8 100644
--- a/src/core/cgroup.c
+++ b/src/core/cgroup.c
@@ -3175,7 +3175,7 @@ int unit_search_main_pid(Unit *u, PidRef *ret) {
                 if (pidref_equal(&pidref, &npidref)) /* seen already, cgroupfs reports duplicates! */
                         continue;
 
-                if (pid_is_my_child(npidref.pid) == 0) /* ignore processes further down the tree */
+                if (pidref_is_my_child(&npidref) <= 0) /* ignore processes further down the tree */
                         continue;
 
                 if (pidref_is_set(&pidref) != 0)
@@ -3913,7 +3913,7 @@ Unit *manager_get_unit_by_pidref(Manager *m, PidRef *pid) {
         if (!pidref_is_set(pid))
                 return NULL;
 
-        if (pid->pid == getpid_cached())
+        if (pidref_is_self(pid))
                 return hashmap_get(m->units, SPECIAL_INIT_SCOPE);
         if (pid->pid == 1)
                 return NULL;
diff --git a/src/core/dbus-unit.c b/src/core/dbus-unit.c
index 354fa5290b..8c9ad0ef9f 100644
--- a/src/core/dbus-unit.c
+++ b/src/core/dbus-unit.c
@@ -1232,21 +1232,21 @@ static int property_get_cgroup(
         return sd_bus_message_append(reply, "s", t);
 }
 
-static int append_process(sd_bus_message *reply, const char *p, pid_t pid, Set *pids) {
+static int append_process(sd_bus_message *reply, const char *p, PidRef *pid, Set *pids) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *buf = NULL, *cmdline = NULL;
         int r;
 
         assert(reply);
-        assert(pid > 0);
+        assert(pidref_is_set(pid));
 
-        r = set_put(pids, PID_TO_PTR(pid));
+        r = set_put(pids, PID_TO_PTR(pid->pid));
         if (IN_SET(r, 0, -EEXIST))
                 return 0;
         if (r < 0)
                 return r;
 
         if (!p) {
-                r = cg_pid_get_path(SYSTEMD_CGROUP_CONTROLLER, pid, &buf);
+                r = cg_pidref_get_path(SYSTEMD_CGROUP_CONTROLLER, pid, &buf);
                 if (r == -ESRCH)
                         return 0;
                 if (r < 0)
@@ -1255,14 +1255,16 @@ static int append_process(sd_bus_message *reply, const char *p, pid_t pid, Set *
                 p = buf;
         }
 
-        (void) get_process_cmdline(pid, SIZE_MAX,
-                                   PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK | PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE,
-                                   &cmdline);
+        (void) pidref_get_cmdline(
+                        pid,
+                        SIZE_MAX,
+                        PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK | PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE,
+                        &cmdline);
 
         return sd_bus_message_append(reply,
                                      "(sus)",
                                      p,
-                                     (uint32_t) pid,
+                                     (uint32_t) pid->pid,
                                      cmdline);
 }
 
@@ -1281,22 +1283,28 @@ static int append_cgroup(sd_bus_message *reply, const char *p, Set *pids) {
                 return r;
 
         for (;;) {
-                pid_t pid;
+                _cleanup_(pidref_done) PidRef pidref = PIDREF_NULL;
 
                 /* libvirt / qemu uses threaded mode and cgroup.procs cannot be read at the lower levels.
-                 * From https://docs.kernel.org/admin-guide/cgroup-v2.html#threads,
-                 * “cgroup.procs” in a threaded domain cgroup contains the PIDs of all processes in
-                 * the subtree and is not readable in the subtree proper. */
-                r = cg_read_pid(f, &pid);
+                 * From https://docs.kernel.org/admin-guide/cgroup-v2.html#threads, “cgroup.procs” in a
+                 * threaded domain cgroup contains the PIDs of all processes in the subtree and is not
+                 * readable in the subtree proper. */
+
+                r = cg_read_pidref(f, &pidref);
                 if (IN_SET(r, 0, -EOPNOTSUPP))
                         break;
                 if (r < 0)
                         return r;
 
-                if (is_kernel_thread(pid) > 0)
+                r = pidref_is_kernel_thread(&pidref);
+                if (r == -ESRCH) /* gone by now */
+                        continue;
+                if (r < 0)
+                        log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to determine if " PID_FMT " is a kernel thread, assuming not: %m", pidref.pid);
+                if (r > 0)
                         continue;
 
-                r = append_process(reply, p, pid, pids);
+                r = append_process(reply, p, &pidref, pids);
                 if (r < 0)
                         return r;
         }
@@ -1361,14 +1369,14 @@ int bus_unit_method_get_processes(sd_bus_message *message, void *userdata, sd_bu
         /* The main and control pids might live outside of the cgroup, hence fetch them separately */
         PidRef *pid = unit_main_pid(u);
         if (pidref_is_set(pid)) {
-                r = append_process(reply, NULL, pid->pid, pids);
+                r = append_process(reply, NULL, pid, pids);
                 if (r < 0)
                         return r;
         }
 
         pid = unit_control_pid(u);
         if (pidref_is_set(pid)) {
-                r = append_process(reply, NULL, pid->pid, pids);
+                r = append_process(reply, NULL, pid, pids);
                 if (r < 0)
                         return r;
         }
@@ -1522,7 +1530,7 @@ int bus_unit_method_attach_processes(sd_bus_message *message, void *userdata, sd
                 /* Let's validate security: if the sender is root, then all is OK. If the sender is any other unit,
                  * then the process' UID and the target unit's UID have to match the sender's UID */
                 if (sender_uid != 0 && sender_uid != getuid()) {
-                        r = get_process_uid(pidref->pid, &process_uid);
+                        r = pidref_get_uid(pidref, &process_uid);
                         if (r < 0)
                                 return sd_bus_error_set_errnof(error, r, "Failed to retrieve process UID: %m");
 
diff --git a/src/core/manager.c b/src/core/manager.c
index 55321d1638..935e655956 100644
--- a/src/core/manager.c
+++ b/src/core/manager.c
@@ -2823,7 +2823,7 @@ static int manager_dispatch_sigchld(sd_event_source *source, void *userdata) {
                 _cleanup_free_ char *name = NULL;
                 Unit *u1, *u2, **array;
 
-                (void) get_process_comm(si.si_pid, &name);
+                (void) pid_get_comm(si.si_pid, &name);
 
                 log_debug("Child "PID_FMT" (%s) died (code=%s, status=%i/%s)",
                           si.si_pid, strna(name),
diff --git a/src/core/mount.c b/src/core/mount.c
index b6b76c5602..123c87ea1a 100644
--- a/src/core/mount.c
+++ b/src/core/mount.c
@@ -796,7 +796,7 @@ static int mount_coldplug(Unit *u) {
                 return 0;
 
         if (pidref_is_set(&m->control_pid) &&
-            pid_is_unwaited(m->control_pid.pid) &&
+            pidref_is_unwaited(&m->control_pid) > 0 &&
             MOUNT_STATE_WITH_PROCESS(m->deserialized_state)) {
 
                 r = unit_watch_pidref(UNIT(m), &m->control_pid, /* exclusive= */ false);
diff --git a/src/core/service.c b/src/core/service.c
index 8846d04d23..02a35bb4ff 100644
--- a/src/core/service.c
+++ b/src/core/service.c
@@ -180,6 +180,8 @@ static void service_unwatch_pid_file(Service *s) {
 }
 
 static int service_set_main_pidref(Service *s, PidRef *pidref) {
+        int r;
+
         assert(s);
 
         /* Takes ownership of the specified pidref on success, but not on failure. */
@@ -190,7 +192,7 @@ static int service_set_main_pidref(Service *s, PidRef *pidref) {
         if (pidref->pid <= 1)
                 return -EINVAL;
 
-        if (pidref->pid == getpid_cached())
+        if (pidref_is_self(pidref))
                 return -EINVAL;
 
         if (pidref_equal(&s->main_pid, pidref) && s->main_pid_known) {
@@ -205,11 +207,14 @@ static int service_set_main_pidref(Service *s, PidRef *pidref) {
 
         s->main_pid = TAKE_PIDREF(*pidref);
         s->main_pid_known = true;
-        s->main_pid_alien = pid_is_my_child(s->main_pid.pid) == 0;
 
-        if (s->main_pid_alien)
+        r = pidref_is_my_child(&s->main_pid);
+        if (r < 0)
+                log_unit_warning_errno(UNIT(s), r, "Can't determine if process "PID_FMT" is our child, assuming it is not: %m", s->main_pid.pid);
+        else if (r == 0)
                 log_unit_warning(UNIT(s), "Supervising process "PID_FMT" which is not our child. We'll most likely not notice when it exits.", s->main_pid.pid);
 
+        s->main_pid_alien = r <= 0;
         return 0;
 }
 
@@ -1053,6 +1058,7 @@ static void service_dump(Unit *u, FILE *f, const char *prefix) {
 
 static int service_is_suitable_main_pid(Service *s, PidRef *pid, int prio) {
         Unit *owner;
+        int r;
 
         assert(s);
         assert(pidref_is_set(pid));
@@ -1061,14 +1067,17 @@ static int service_is_suitable_main_pid(Service *s, PidRef *pid, int prio) {
          * PID is questionnable but should be accepted if the source of configuration is trusted. > 0 if the PID is
          * good */
 
-        if (pid->pid == getpid_cached() || pid->pid == 1)
+        if (pidref_is_self(pid) || pid->pid == 1)
                 return log_unit_full_errno(UNIT(s), prio, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EPERM), "New main PID "PID_FMT" is the manager, refusing.", pid->pid);
 
         if (pidref_equal(pid, &s->control_pid))
                 return log_unit_full_errno(UNIT(s), prio, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EPERM), "New main PID "PID_FMT" is the control process, refusing.", pid->pid);
 
-        if (!pid_is_alive(pid->pid))
+        r = pidref_is_alive(pid);
+        if (r == 0)
                 return log_unit_full_errno(UNIT(s), prio, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ESRCH), "New main PID "PID_FMT" does not exist or is a zombie.", pid->pid);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_unit_full_errno(UNIT(s), prio, r, "Failed to check if main PID "PID_FMT" exists or is a zombie.", pid->pid);
 
         owner = manager_get_unit_by_pidref(UNIT(s)->manager, pid);
         if (owner == UNIT(s)) {
@@ -1317,7 +1326,7 @@ static int service_coldplug(Unit *u) {
                 return r;
 
         if (pidref_is_set(&s->main_pid) &&
-            pid_is_unwaited(s->main_pid.pid) &&
+            pidref_is_unwaited(&s->main_pid) > 0 &&
             (IN_SET(s->deserialized_state,
                     SERVICE_START, SERVICE_START_POST,
                     SERVICE_RUNNING,
@@ -1330,7 +1339,7 @@ static int service_coldplug(Unit *u) {
         }
 
         if (pidref_is_set(&s->control_pid) &&
-            pid_is_unwaited(s->control_pid.pid) &&
+            pidref_is_unwaited(&s->control_pid) > 0 &&
             IN_SET(s->deserialized_state,
                    SERVICE_CONDITION, SERVICE_START_PRE, SERVICE_START, SERVICE_START_POST,
                    SERVICE_RELOAD, SERVICE_RELOAD_SIGNAL, SERVICE_RELOAD_NOTIFY,
@@ -1827,7 +1836,7 @@ static int main_pid_good(Service *s) {
 
                 /* If it's an alien child let's check if it is still alive ... */
                 if (s->main_pid_alien && pidref_is_set(&s->main_pid))
-                        return pid_is_alive(s->main_pid.pid);
+                        return pidref_is_alive(&s->main_pid);
 
                 /* .. otherwise assume we'll get a SIGCHLD for it, which we really should wait for to collect
                  * exit status and code */
@@ -2295,7 +2304,7 @@ static void service_kill_control_process(Service *s) {
         if (r < 0) {
                 _cleanup_free_ char *comm = NULL;
 
-                (void) get_process_comm(s->control_pid.pid, &comm);
+                (void) pidref_get_comm(&s->control_pid, &comm);
 
                 log_unit_debug_errno(UNIT(s), r, "Failed to kill control process " PID_FMT " (%s), ignoring: %m",
                                      s->control_pid.pid, strna(comm));
diff --git a/src/core/socket.c b/src/core/socket.c
index dff4bc42d7..62ce29076e 100644
--- a/src/core/socket.c
+++ b/src/core/socket.c
@@ -1852,7 +1852,7 @@ static int socket_coldplug(Unit *u) {
                 return 0;
 
         if (pidref_is_set(&s->control_pid) &&
-            pid_is_unwaited(s->control_pid.pid) &&
+            pidref_is_unwaited(&s->control_pid) > 0 &&
             IN_SET(s->deserialized_state,
                    SOCKET_START_PRE,
                    SOCKET_START_CHOWN,
diff --git a/src/core/swap.c b/src/core/swap.c
index d0bce8c44b..d0aae9a534 100644
--- a/src/core/swap.c
+++ b/src/core/swap.c
@@ -557,7 +557,7 @@ static int swap_coldplug(Unit *u) {
                 return 0;
 
         if (pidref_is_set(&s->control_pid) &&
-            pid_is_unwaited(s->control_pid.pid) &&
+            pidref_is_unwaited(&s->control_pid) > 0 &&
             SWAP_STATE_WITH_PROCESS(new_state)) {
 
                 r = unit_watch_pidref(UNIT(s), &s->control_pid, /* exclusive= */ false);
diff --git a/src/core/unit.c b/src/core/unit.c
index 4aef2e97de..a60656709a 100644
--- a/src/core/unit.c
+++ b/src/core/unit.c
@@ -2982,7 +2982,7 @@ static void unit_tidy_watch_pids(Unit *u) {
                 if (pidref_equal(except1, e) || pidref_equal(except2, e))
                         continue;
 
-                if (!pid_is_unwaited(e->pid))
+                if (pidref_is_unwaited(e) <= 0)
                         unit_unwatch_pidref(u, e);
         }
 }
@@ -4006,13 +4006,14 @@ static Set *unit_pid_set(pid_t main_pid, pid_t control_pid) {
         return TAKE_PTR(pid_set);
 }
 
-static int kill_common_log(pid_t pid, int signo, void *userdata) {
+static int kill_common_log(const PidRef *pid, int signo, void *userdata) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *comm = NULL;
         Unit *u = ASSERT_PTR(userdata);
 
-        (void) get_process_comm(pid, &comm);
+        (void) pidref_get_comm(pid, &comm);
+
         log_unit_info(u, "Sending signal SIG%s to process " PID_FMT " (%s) on client request.",
-                      signal_to_string(signo), pid, strna(comm));
+                      signal_to_string(signo), pid->pid, strna(comm));
 
         return 1;
 }
@@ -4081,7 +4082,7 @@ int unit_kill(
         if (pidref_is_set(control_pid) &&
             IN_SET(who, KILL_CONTROL, KILL_CONTROL_FAIL, KILL_ALL, KILL_ALL_FAIL)) {
                 _cleanup_free_ char *comm = NULL;
-                (void) get_process_comm(control_pid->pid, &comm);
+                (void) pidref_get_comm(control_pid, &comm);
 
                 r = kill_or_sigqueue(control_pid, signo, code, value);
                 if (r < 0) {
@@ -4105,9 +4106,8 @@ int unit_kill(
 
         if (pidref_is_set(main_pid) &&
             IN_SET(who, KILL_MAIN, KILL_MAIN_FAIL, KILL_ALL, KILL_ALL_FAIL)) {
-
                 _cleanup_free_ char *comm = NULL;
-                (void) get_process_comm(main_pid->pid, &comm);
+                (void) pidref_get_comm(main_pid, &comm);
 
                 r = kill_or_sigqueue(main_pid, signo, code, value);
                 if (r < 0) {
@@ -4729,10 +4729,12 @@ int unit_make_transient(Unit *u) {
         return 0;
 }
 
-static int log_kill(pid_t pid, int sig, void *userdata) {
+static int log_kill(const PidRef *pid, int sig, void *userdata) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *comm = NULL;
 
-        (void) get_process_comm(pid, &comm);
+        assert(pidref_is_set(pid));
+
+        (void) pidref_get_comm(pid, &comm);
 
         /* Don't log about processes marked with brackets, under the assumption that these are temporary processes
            only, like for example systemd's own PAM stub process. */
@@ -4743,7 +4745,7 @@ static int log_kill(pid_t pid, int sig, void *userdata) {
 
         log_unit_notice(userdata,
                         "Killing process " PID_FMT " (%s) with signal SIG%s.",
-                        pid,
+                        pid->pid,
                         strna(comm),
                         signal_to_string(sig));
 
@@ -4815,12 +4817,12 @@ int unit_kill_context(
 
         if (pidref_is_set(main_pid)) {
                 if (log_func)
-                        log_func(main_pid->pid, sig, u);
+                        log_func(main_pid, sig, u);
 
                 r = pidref_kill_and_sigcont(main_pid, sig);
                 if (r < 0 && r != -ESRCH) {
                         _cleanup_free_ char *comm = NULL;
-                        (void) get_process_comm(main_pid->pid, &comm);
+                        (void) pidref_get_comm(main_pid, &comm);
 
                         log_unit_warning_errno(u, r, "Failed to kill main process " PID_FMT " (%s), ignoring: %m", main_pid->pid, strna(comm));
                 } else {
@@ -4834,12 +4836,12 @@ int unit_kill_context(
 
         if (pidref_is_set(control_pid)) {
                 if (log_func)
-                        log_func(control_pid->pid, sig, u);
+                        log_func(control_pid, sig, u);
 
                 r = pidref_kill_and_sigcont(control_pid, sig);
                 if (r < 0 && r != -ESRCH) {
                         _cleanup_free_ char *comm = NULL;
-                        (void) get_process_comm(control_pid->pid, &comm);
+                        (void) pidref_get_comm(control_pid, &comm);
 
                         log_unit_warning_errno(u, r, "Failed to kill control process " PID_FMT " (%s), ignoring: %m", control_pid->pid, strna(comm));
                 } else {
@@ -5862,10 +5864,12 @@ static bool ignore_leftover_process(const char *comm) {
         return comm && comm[0] == '('; /* Most likely our own helper process (PAM?), ignore */
 }
 
-int unit_log_leftover_process_start(pid_t pid, int sig, void *userdata) {
+int unit_log_leftover_process_start(const PidRef *pid, int sig, void *userdata) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *comm = NULL;
 
-        (void) get_process_comm(pid, &comm);
+        assert(pidref_is_set(pid));
+
+        (void) pidref_get_comm(pid, &comm);
 
         if (ignore_leftover_process(comm))
                 return 0;
@@ -5875,15 +5879,17 @@ int unit_log_leftover_process_start(pid_t pid, int sig, void *userdata) {
         log_unit_warning(userdata,
                          "Found left-over process " PID_FMT " (%s) in control group while starting unit. Ignoring.\n"
                          "This usually indicates unclean termination of a previous run, or service implementation deficiencies.",
-                         pid, strna(comm));
+                         pid->pid, strna(comm));
 
         return 1;
 }
 
-int unit_log_leftover_process_stop(pid_t pid, int sig, void *userdata) {
+int unit_log_leftover_process_stop(const PidRef *pid, int sig, void *userdata) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *comm = NULL;
 
-        (void) get_process_comm(pid, &comm);
+        assert(pidref_is_set(pid));
+
+        (void) pidref_get_comm(pid, &comm);
 
         if (ignore_leftover_process(comm))
                 return 0;
@@ -5892,7 +5898,7 @@ int unit_log_leftover_process_stop(pid_t pid, int sig, void *userdata) {
 
         log_unit_info(userdata,
                       "Unit process " PID_FMT " (%s) remains running after unit stopped.",
-                      pid, strna(comm));
+                      pid->pid, strna(comm));
 
         return 1;
 }
@@ -5949,11 +5955,11 @@ int unit_pid_attachable(Unit *u, PidRef *pid, sd_bus_error *error) {
                 return sd_bus_error_setf(error, SD_BUS_ERROR_INVALID_ARGS, "Process identifier is not valid.");
 
         /* Some extra safety check */
-        if (pid->pid == 1 || pid->pid == getpid_cached())
+        if (pid->pid == 1 || pidref_is_self(pid))
                 return sd_bus_error_setf(error, SD_BUS_ERROR_INVALID_ARGS, "Process " PID_FMT " is a manager process, refusing.", pid->pid);
 
         /* Don't even begin to bother with kernel threads */
-        r = is_kernel_thread(pid->pid);
+        r = pidref_is_kernel_thread(pid);
         if (r == -ESRCH)
                 return sd_bus_error_setf(error, SD_BUS_ERROR_UNIX_PROCESS_ID_UNKNOWN, "Process with ID " PID_FMT " does not exist.", pid->pid);
         if (r < 0)
diff --git a/src/core/unit.h b/src/core/unit.h
index b5d7eb5f26..2427e2e765 100644
--- a/src/core/unit.h
+++ b/src/core/unit.h
@@ -1036,8 +1036,9 @@ void unit_unlink_state_files(Unit *u);
 
 int unit_prepare_exec(Unit *u);
 
-int unit_log_leftover_process_start(pid_t pid, int sig, void *userdata);
-int unit_log_leftover_process_stop(pid_t pid, int sig, void *userdata);
+int unit_log_leftover_process_start(const PidRef* pid, int sig, void *userdata);
+int unit_log_leftover_process_stop(const PidRef* pid, int sig, void *userdata);
+
 int unit_warn_leftover_processes(Unit *u, cg_kill_log_func_t log_func);
 
 bool unit_needs_console(Unit *u);
diff --git a/src/coredump/coredump.c b/src/coredump/coredump.c
index 12f84ef965..1962512c67 100644
--- a/src/coredump/coredump.c
+++ b/src/coredump/coredump.c
@@ -744,7 +744,7 @@ static int get_process_container_parent_cmdline(pid_t pid, char** cmdline) {
         if (r < 0)
                 return r;
 
-        r = get_process_cmdline(container_pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE_POSIX, cmdline);
+        r = pid_get_cmdline(container_pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE_POSIX, cmdline);
         if (r < 0)
                 return r;
 
@@ -1218,7 +1218,7 @@ static int gather_pid_metadata_from_procfs(struct iovec_wrapper *iovw, Context *
         pid = context->pid;
 
         /* The following is mandatory */
-        r = get_process_comm(pid, &t);
+        r = pid_get_comm(pid, &t);
         if (r < 0)
                 return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to get COMM: %m");
 
@@ -1251,7 +1251,7 @@ static int gather_pid_metadata_from_procfs(struct iovec_wrapper *iovw, Context *
         if (sd_pid_get_slice(pid, &t) >= 0)
                 (void) iovw_put_string_field_free(iovw, "COREDUMP_SLICE=", t);
 
-        if (get_process_cmdline(pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE_POSIX, &t) >= 0)
+        if (pid_get_cmdline(pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE_POSIX, &t) >= 0)
                 (void) iovw_put_string_field_free(iovw, "COREDUMP_CMDLINE=", t);
 
         if (cg_pid_get_path_shifted(pid, NULL, &t) >= 0)
diff --git a/src/journal/journald-console.c b/src/journal/journald-console.c
index 8595ba3e45..d914f92999 100644
--- a/src/journal/journald-console.c
+++ b/src/journal/journald-console.c
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ void server_forward_console(
         /* Second: identifier and PID */
         if (ucred) {
                 if (!identifier) {
-                        (void) get_process_comm(ucred->pid, &ident_buf);
+                        (void) pid_get_comm(ucred->pid, &ident_buf);
                         identifier = ident_buf;
                 }
 
diff --git a/src/journal/journald-context.c b/src/journal/journald-context.c
index 7274f5f3e9..cc5b4bc6ad 100644
--- a/src/journal/journald-context.c
+++ b/src/journal/journald-context.c
@@ -210,7 +210,7 @@ static void client_context_read_uid_gid(ClientContext *c, const struct ucred *uc
         if (ucred && uid_is_valid(ucred->uid))
                 c->uid = ucred->uid;
         else
-                (void) get_process_uid(c->pid, &c->uid);
+                (void) pid_get_uid(c->pid, &c->uid);
 
         if (ucred && gid_is_valid(ucred->gid))
                 c->gid = ucred->gid;
@@ -224,13 +224,13 @@ static void client_context_read_basic(ClientContext *c) {
         assert(c);
         assert(pid_is_valid(c->pid));
 
-        if (get_process_comm(c->pid, &t) >= 0)
+        if (pid_get_comm(c->pid, &t) >= 0)
                 free_and_replace(c->comm, t);
 
         if (get_process_exe(c->pid, &t) >= 0)
                 free_and_replace(c->exe, t);
 
-        if (get_process_cmdline(c->pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE, &t) >= 0)
+        if (pid_get_cmdline(c->pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE, &t) >= 0)
                 free_and_replace(c->cmdline, t);
 
         if (get_process_capeff(c->pid, &t) >= 0)
@@ -609,7 +609,7 @@ static void client_context_try_shrink_to(Server *s, size_t limit) {
 
                         assert(c->n_ref == 0);
 
-                        if (!pid_is_unwaited(c->pid))
+                        if (pid_is_unwaited(c->pid) == 0)
                                 client_context_free(s, c);
                         else
                                 idx ++;
diff --git a/src/journal/journald-kmsg.c b/src/journal/journald-kmsg.c
index de94dc6041..5ee4c7e057 100644
--- a/src/journal/journald-kmsg.c
+++ b/src/journal/journald-kmsg.c
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ void server_forward_kmsg(
         /* Second: identifier and PID */
         if (ucred) {
                 if (!identifier) {
-                        (void) get_process_comm(ucred->pid, &ident_buf);
+                        (void) pid_get_comm(ucred->pid, &ident_buf);
                         identifier = ident_buf;
                 }
 
diff --git a/src/journal/journald-syslog.c b/src/journal/journald-syslog.c
index 1ecbd226da..c1c0a913eb 100644
--- a/src/journal/journald-syslog.c
+++ b/src/journal/journald-syslog.c
@@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ void server_forward_syslog(Server *s, int priority, const char *identifier, cons
         /* Third: identifier and PID */
         if (ucred) {
                 if (!identifier) {
-                        (void) get_process_comm(ucred->pid, &ident_buf);
+                        (void) pid_get_comm(ucred->pid, &ident_buf);
                         identifier = ident_buf;
                 }
 
diff --git a/src/journal/journald-wall.c b/src/journal/journald-wall.c
index c8d92c4d3e..79eaac1068 100644
--- a/src/journal/journald-wall.c
+++ b/src/journal/journald-wall.c
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ void server_forward_wall(
 
         if (ucred) {
                 if (!identifier) {
-                        (void) get_process_comm(ucred->pid, &ident_buf);
+                        (void) pid_get_comm(ucred->pid, &ident_buf);
                         identifier = ident_buf;
                 }
 
diff --git a/src/libsystemd/sd-bus/bus-creds.c b/src/libsystemd/sd-bus/bus-creds.c
index d2513f1f73..c6d8caaf6d 100644
--- a/src/libsystemd/sd-bus/bus-creds.c
+++ b/src/libsystemd/sd-bus/bus-creds.c
@@ -139,7 +139,7 @@ sd_bus_creds* bus_creds_new(void) {
 }
 
 _public_ int sd_bus_creds_new_from_pid(sd_bus_creds **ret, pid_t pid, uint64_t mask) {
-        sd_bus_creds *c;
+        _cleanup_(sd_bus_creds_unrefp) sd_bus_creds *c = NULL;
         int r;
 
         assert_return(pid >= 0, -EINVAL);
@@ -154,19 +154,18 @@ _public_ int sd_bus_creds_new_from_pid(sd_bus_creds **ret, pid_t pid, uint64_t m
                 return -ENOMEM;
 
         r = bus_creds_add_more(c, mask | SD_BUS_CREDS_AUGMENT, pid, 0);
-        if (r < 0) {
-                sd_bus_creds_unref(c);
+        if (r < 0)
                 return r;
-        }
 
         /* Check if the process existed at all, in case we haven't
          * figured that out already */
-        if (!pid_is_alive(pid)) {
-                sd_bus_creds_unref(c);
+        r = pid_is_alive(pid);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+        if (r == 0)
                 return -ESRCH;
-        }
 
-        *ret = c;
+        *ret = TAKE_PTR(c);
         return 0;
 }
 
@@ -969,7 +968,7 @@ int bus_creds_add_more(sd_bus_creds *c, uint64_t mask, pid_t pid, pid_t tid) {
         }
 
         if (missing & SD_BUS_CREDS_COMM) {
-                r = get_process_comm(pid, &c->comm);
+                r = pid_get_comm(pid, &c->comm);
                 if (r < 0) {
                         if (!ERRNO_IS_PRIVILEGE(r))
                                 return r;
@@ -1089,15 +1088,16 @@ int bus_creds_add_more(sd_bus_creds *c, uint64_t mask, pid_t pid, pid_t tid) {
                         c->mask |= SD_BUS_CREDS_TTY;
         }
 
-        /* In case only the exe path was to be read we cannot
-         * distinguish the case where the exe path was unreadable
-         * because the process was a kernel thread, or when the
-         * process didn't exist at all. Hence, let's do a final check,
-         * to be sure. */
-        if (!pid_is_alive(pid))
+        /* In case only the exe path was to be read we cannot distinguish the case where the exe path was
+         * unreadable because the process was a kernel thread, or when the process didn't exist at
+         * all. Hence, let's do a final check, to be sure. */
+        r = pid_is_alive(pid);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+        if (r == 0)
                 return -ESRCH;
 
-        if (tid > 0 && tid != pid && !pid_is_unwaited(tid))
+        if (tid > 0 && tid != pid && pid_is_unwaited(tid) == 0)
                 return -ESRCH;
 
         c->augmented = missing & c->mask;
diff --git a/src/libsystemd/sd-bus/bus-socket.c b/src/libsystemd/sd-bus/bus-socket.c
index cfa5633f23..5079d68550 100644
--- a/src/libsystemd/sd-bus/bus-socket.c
+++ b/src/libsystemd/sd-bus/bus-socket.c
@@ -920,7 +920,7 @@ static int bind_description(sd_bus *b, int fd, int family) {
          * - a random 64-bit value (to avoid collisions)
          * - our "comm" process name (suppressed if contains "/" to avoid parsing issues)
          * - the description string of the bus connection. */
-        (void) get_process_comm(0, &comm);
+        (void) pid_get_comm(0, &comm);
         if (comm && strchr(comm, '/'))
                 comm = mfree(comm);
 
diff --git a/src/libsystemd/sd-bus/test-bus-peersockaddr.c b/src/libsystemd/sd-bus/test-bus-peersockaddr.c
index 8bab429624..4774ef6a4c 100644
--- a/src/libsystemd/sd-bus/test-bus-peersockaddr.c
+++ b/src/libsystemd/sd-bus/test-bus-peersockaddr.c
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ static void *server(void *p) {
 
         const char *comm;
         assert_se(sd_bus_creds_get_comm(c, &comm) >= 0);
-        assert_se(get_process_comm(0, &our_comm) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_comm(0, &our_comm) >= 0);
         assert_se(streq_ptr(comm, our_comm));
 
         const char *description;
diff --git a/src/login/inhibit.c b/src/login/inhibit.c
index 75dba8c08f..61fbd5df14 100644
--- a/src/login/inhibit.c
+++ b/src/login/inhibit.c
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ static int print_inhibitors(sd_bus *bus) {
                 if (arg_mode && !streq(mode, arg_mode))
                         continue;
 
-                (void) get_process_comm(pid, &comm);
+                (void) pid_get_comm(pid, &comm);
                 u = uid_to_name(uid);
 
                 r = table_add_many(table,
diff --git a/src/login/loginctl.c b/src/login/loginctl.c
index 5248135d00..fdf899c37f 100644
--- a/src/login/loginctl.c
+++ b/src/login/loginctl.c
@@ -525,7 +525,7 @@ static int print_session_status_info(sd_bus *bus, const char *path) {
         if (i.leader > 0) {
                 _cleanup_free_ char *name = NULL;
 
-                (void) get_process_comm(i.leader, &name);
+                (void) pid_get_comm(i.leader, &name);
 
                 r = table_add_cell(table, NULL, TABLE_FIELD, "Leader");
                 if (r < 0)
diff --git a/src/login/logind-action.c b/src/login/logind-action.c
index 54ff795c0d..a2b211933a 100644
--- a/src/login/logind-action.c
+++ b/src/login/logind-action.c
@@ -239,7 +239,7 @@ int manager_handle_action(
             manager_is_inhibited(m, inhibit_operation, INHIBIT_BLOCK, NULL, false, false, 0, &offending)) {
                 _cleanup_free_ char *comm = NULL, *u = NULL;
 
-                (void) get_process_comm(offending->pid.pid, &comm);
+                (void) pidref_get_comm(&offending->pid, &comm);
                 u = uid_to_name(offending->uid);
 
                 /* If this is just a recheck of the lid switch then don't warn about anything */
diff --git a/src/login/logind-dbus.c b/src/login/logind-dbus.c
index ca1c485a24..b458359c97 100644
--- a/src/login/logind-dbus.c
+++ b/src/login/logind-dbus.c
@@ -1650,7 +1650,7 @@ int manager_dispatch_delayed(Manager *manager, bool timeout) {
                 if (!timeout)
                         return 0;
 
-                (void) get_process_comm(offending->pid.pid, &comm);
+                (void) pidref_get_comm(&offending->pid, &comm);
                 u = uid_to_name(offending->uid);
 
                 log_notice("Delay lock is active (UID "UID_FMT"/%s, PID "PID_FMT"/%s) but inhibitor timeout is reached.",
diff --git a/src/machine/machinectl.c b/src/machine/machinectl.c
index 9b6a6cebda..c9800282a5 100644
--- a/src/machine/machinectl.c
+++ b/src/machine/machinectl.c
@@ -526,7 +526,7 @@ static void print_machine_status_info(sd_bus *bus, MachineStatusInfo *i) {
 
                 printf("\t  Leader: %u", (unsigned) i->leader);
 
-                (void) get_process_comm(i->leader, &t);
+                (void) pid_get_comm(i->leader, &t);
                 if (t)
                         printf(" (%s)", t);
 
diff --git a/src/oom/oomd-util.c b/src/oom/oomd-util.c
index 99e1de182f..f9f0af2d04 100644
--- a/src/oom/oomd-util.c
+++ b/src/oom/oomd-util.c
@@ -26,8 +26,8 @@ DEFINE_HASH_OPS_WITH_VALUE_DESTRUCTOR(
                 OomdCGroupContext,
                 oomd_cgroup_context_free);
 
-static int log_kill(pid_t pid, int sig, void *userdata) {
-        log_debug("oomd attempting to kill " PID_FMT " with %s", pid, signal_to_string(sig));
+static int log_kill(const PidRef *pid, int sig, void *userdata) {
+        log_debug("oomd attempting to kill " PID_FMT " with %s", pid->pid, signal_to_string(sig));
         return 0;
 }
 
diff --git a/src/shared/cgroup-setup.c b/src/shared/cgroup-setup.c
index fac2e08afc..811f129f6c 100644
--- a/src/shared/cgroup-setup.c
+++ b/src/shared/cgroup-setup.c
@@ -611,7 +611,7 @@ int cg_migrate(
                          * them there. */
                         if (cfrom &&
                             empty_or_root(pfrom) &&
-                            is_kernel_thread(pid) > 0)
+                            pid_is_kernel_thread(pid) > 0)
                                 continue;
 
                         r = cg_attach(cto, pto, pid);
diff --git a/src/shared/cgroup-show.c b/src/shared/cgroup-show.c
index 32e1176a57..b77bab0215 100644
--- a/src/shared/cgroup-show.c
+++ b/src/shared/cgroup-show.c
@@ -31,14 +31,14 @@
 
 static void show_pid_array(
                 pid_t pids[],
-                unsigned n_pids,
+                size_t n_pids,
                 const char *prefix,
                 size_t n_columns,
                 bool extra,
                 bool more,
                 OutputFlags flags) {
 
-        unsigned i, j, pid_width;
+        size_t i, j, pid_width;
 
         if (n_pids == 0)
                 return;
@@ -65,9 +65,9 @@ static void show_pid_array(
         for (i = 0; i < n_pids; i++) {
                 _cleanup_free_ char *t = NULL;
 
-                (void) get_process_cmdline(pids[i], n_columns,
-                                           PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK | PROCESS_CMDLINE_USE_LOCALE,
-                                           &t);
+                (void) pid_get_cmdline(pids[i], n_columns,
+                                       PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK | PROCESS_CMDLINE_USE_LOCALE,
+                                       &t);
 
                 if (extra)
                         printf("%s%s ", prefix, special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_TRIANGULAR_BULLET));
@@ -114,7 +114,7 @@ static int show_cgroup_one_by_path(
                 if (r < 0)
                         return r;
 
-                if (!(flags & OUTPUT_KERNEL_THREADS) && is_kernel_thread(pid) > 0)
+                if (!(flags & OUTPUT_KERNEL_THREADS) && pid_is_kernel_thread(pid) > 0)
                         continue;
 
                 if (!GREEDY_REALLOC(pids, n + 1))
@@ -334,11 +334,11 @@ static int show_extra_pids(
                 const char *prefix,
                 size_t n_columns,
                 const pid_t pids[],
-                unsigned n_pids,
+                size_t n_pids,
                 OutputFlags flags) {
 
         _cleanup_free_ pid_t *copy = NULL;
-        unsigned i, j;
+        size_t i, j;
         int r;
 
         assert(path);
@@ -379,7 +379,7 @@ int show_cgroup_and_extra(
                 const char *prefix,
                 size_t n_columns,
                 const pid_t extra_pids[],
-                unsigned n_extra_pids,
+                size_t n_extra_pids,
                 OutputFlags flags) {
 
         int r;
diff --git a/src/shared/cgroup-show.h b/src/shared/cgroup-show.h
index fbbf7663b3..db3c9c9cd0 100644
--- a/src/shared/cgroup-show.h
+++ b/src/shared/cgroup-show.h
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@
 int show_cgroup_by_path(const char *path, const char *prefix, size_t n_columns, OutputFlags flags);
 int show_cgroup(const char *controller, const char *path, const char *prefix, size_t n_columns, OutputFlags flags);
 
-int show_cgroup_and_extra(const char *controller, const char *path, const char *prefix, size_t n_columns, const pid_t extra_pids[], unsigned n_extra_pids, OutputFlags flags);
+int show_cgroup_and_extra(const char *controller, const char *path, const char *prefix, size_t n_columns, const pid_t extra_pids[], size_t n_extra_pids, OutputFlags flags);
 
 int show_cgroup_get_unit_path_and_warn(
                 sd_bus *bus,
diff --git a/src/shared/common-signal.c b/src/shared/common-signal.c
index e4edd180d8..8e70e365dd 100644
--- a/src/shared/common-signal.c
+++ b/src/shared/common-signal.c
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ int sigrtmin18_handler(sd_event_source *s, const struct signalfd_siginfo *si, vo
         assert(s);
         assert(si);
 
-        (void) get_process_comm(si->ssi_pid, &comm);
+        (void) pid_get_comm(si->ssi_pid, &comm);
 
         if (si->ssi_code != SI_QUEUE) {
                 log_notice("Received control signal %s from process " PID_FMT " (%s) without command value, ignoring.",
diff --git a/src/shared/killall.c b/src/shared/killall.c
index ef715dbdfe..9c2babe7d2 100644
--- a/src/shared/killall.c
+++ b/src/shared/killall.c
@@ -46,13 +46,15 @@ static bool argv_has_at(pid_t pid) {
         return c == '@';
 }
 
-static bool is_survivor_cgroup(pid_t pid) {
+static bool is_survivor_cgroup(const PidRef *pid) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *cgroup_path = NULL;
         int r;
 
-        r = cg_pid_get_path(/* root= */ NULL, pid, &cgroup_path);
+        assert(pidref_is_set(pid));
+
+        r = cg_pidref_get_path(/* root= */ NULL, pid, &cgroup_path);
         if (r < 0) {
-                log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to get cgroup path of process " PID_FMT ", ignoring: %m", pid);
+                log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to get cgroup path of process " PID_FMT ", ignoring: %m", pid->pid);
                 return false;
         }
 
@@ -68,16 +70,18 @@ static bool is_survivor_cgroup(pid_t pid) {
         return r > 0;
 }
 
-static bool ignore_proc(pid_t pid, bool warn_rootfs) {
+static bool ignore_proc(const PidRef *pid, bool warn_rootfs) {
         uid_t uid;
         int r;
 
+        assert(pidref_is_set(pid));
+
         /* We are PID 1, let's not commit suicide */
-        if (pid <= 1)
+        if (pid->pid == 1)
                 return true;
 
         /* Ignore kernel threads */
-        r = is_kernel_thread(pid);
+        r = pidref_is_kernel_thread(pid);
         if (r != 0)
                 return true; /* also ignore processes where we can't determine this */
 
@@ -85,7 +89,7 @@ static bool ignore_proc(pid_t pid, bool warn_rootfs) {
         if (is_survivor_cgroup(pid))
                 return true;
 
-        r = get_process_uid(pid, &uid);
+        r = pidref_get_uid(pid, &uid);
         if (r < 0)
                 return true; /* not really, but better safe than sorry */
 
@@ -93,20 +97,20 @@ static bool ignore_proc(pid_t pid, bool warn_rootfs) {
         if (uid != 0)
                 return false;
 
-        if (!argv_has_at(pid))
+        if (!argv_has_at(pid->pid))
                 return false;
 
         if (warn_rootfs &&
-            pid_from_same_root_fs(pid) == 0) {
+            pid_from_same_root_fs(pid->pid) == 0) {
 
                 _cleanup_free_ char *comm = NULL;
 
-                (void) get_process_comm(pid, &comm);
+                (void) pidref_get_comm(pid, &comm);
 
                 log_notice("Process " PID_FMT " (%s) has been marked to be excluded from killing. It is "
                            "running from the root file system, and thus likely to block re-mounting of the "
                            "root file system to read-only. Please consider moving it into an initrd file "
-                           "system instead.", pid, strna(comm));
+                           "system instead.", pid->pid, strna(comm));
         }
 
         return true;
@@ -120,12 +124,12 @@ static void log_children_no_yet_killed(Set *pids) {
         SET_FOREACH(p, pids) {
                 _cleanup_free_ char *s = NULL;
 
-                if (get_process_comm(PTR_TO_PID(p), &s) >= 0)
+                if (pid_get_comm(PTR_TO_PID(p), &s) >= 0)
                         r = strextendf(&lst_child, ", " PID_FMT " (%s)", PTR_TO_PID(p), s);
                 else
                         r = strextendf(&lst_child, ", " PID_FMT, PTR_TO_PID(p));
                 if (r < 0)
-                        return (void) log_oom();
+                        return (void) log_oom_warning();
         }
 
         if (isempty(lst_child))
@@ -223,59 +227,57 @@ static int wait_for_children(Set *pids, sigset_t *mask, usec_t timeout) {
 
 static int killall(int sig, Set *pids, bool send_sighup) {
         _cleanup_closedir_ DIR *dir = NULL;
-        int n_killed = 0;
+        int n_killed = 0, r;
 
         /* Send the specified signal to all remaining processes, if not excluded by ignore_proc().
          * Returns the number of processes to which the specified signal was sent */
 
-        dir = opendir("/proc");
-        if (!dir)
-                return log_warning_errno(errno, "opendir(/proc) failed: %m");
+        r = proc_dir_open(&dir);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_warning_errno(r, "opendir(/proc) failed: %m");
 
-        FOREACH_DIRENT_ALL(de, dir, break) {
-                pid_t pid;
-                int r;
+        for (;;) {
+                _cleanup_(pidref_done) PidRef pidref = PIDREF_NULL;
 
-                if (!IN_SET(de->d_type, DT_DIR, DT_UNKNOWN))
-                        continue;
+                r = proc_dir_read_pidref(dir, &pidref);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to enumerate /proc: %m");
+                if (r == 0)
+                        break;
 
-                if (parse_pid(de->d_name, &pid) < 0)
-                        continue;
-
-                if (ignore_proc(pid, sig == SIGKILL && !in_initrd()))
+                if (ignore_proc(&pidref, sig == SIGKILL && !in_initrd()))
                         continue;
 
                 if (sig == SIGKILL) {
                         _cleanup_free_ char *s = NULL;
 
-                        (void) get_process_comm(pid, &s);
-                        log_notice("Sending SIGKILL to PID "PID_FMT" (%s).", pid, strna(s));
+                        (void) pidref_get_comm(&pidref, &s);
+                        log_notice("Sending SIGKILL to PID "PID_FMT" (%s).", pidref.pid, strna(s));
                 }
 
-                if (kill(pid, sig) >= 0) {
+                r = pidref_kill(&pidref, sig);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        if (errno != -ESRCH)
+                                log_warning_errno(errno, "Could not kill " PID_FMT ", ignoring: %m", pidref.pid);
+                } else {
                         n_killed++;
                         if (pids) {
-                                r = set_put(pids, PID_TO_PTR(pid));
+                                r = set_put(pids, PID_TO_PTR(pidref.pid));
                                 if (r < 0)
-                                        log_oom();
+                                        (void) log_oom_warning();
                         }
-                } else if (errno != ENOENT)
-                        log_warning_errno(errno, "Could not kill %d: %m", pid);
+                }
 
                 if (send_sighup) {
-                        /* Optionally, also send a SIGHUP signal, but
-                        only if the process has a controlling
-                        tty. This is useful to allow handling of
-                        shells which ignore SIGTERM but react to
-                        SIGHUP. We do not send this to processes that
-                        have no controlling TTY since we don't want to
-                        trigger reloads of daemon processes. Also we
-                        make sure to only send this after SIGTERM so
-                        that SIGTERM is always first in the queue. */
+                        /* Optionally, also send a SIGHUP signal, but only if the process has a controlling
+                         * tty. This is useful to allow handling of shells which ignore SIGTERM but react to
+                         * SIGHUP. We do not send this to processes that have no controlling TTY since we
+                         * don't want to trigger reloads of daemon processes. Also we make sure to only send
+                         * this after SIGTERM so that SIGTERM is always first in the queue. */
 
-                        if (get_ctty_devnr(pid, NULL) >= 0)
+                        if (get_ctty_devnr(pidref.pid, NULL) >= 0)
                                 /* it's OK if the process is gone, just ignore the result */
-                                (void) kill(pid, SIGHUP);
+                                (void) pidref_kill(&pidref, SIGHUP);
                 }
         }
 
diff --git a/src/shutdown/umount.c b/src/shutdown/umount.c
index 1586c2e214..70585523ae 100644
--- a/src/shutdown/umount.c
+++ b/src/shutdown/umount.c
@@ -222,7 +222,7 @@ static void log_umount_blockers(const char *mnt) {
                         continue;
 
                 _cleanup_free_ char *comm = NULL;
-                r = get_process_comm(pid, &comm);
+                r = pid_get_comm(pid, &comm);
                 if (r < 0) {
                         if (r != -ESRCH) /* process gone by now */
                                 log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to read process name of PID " PID_FMT ": %m", pid);
diff --git a/src/systemctl/systemctl-logind.c b/src/systemctl/systemctl-logind.c
index a4486dcce9..2a697b84e5 100644
--- a/src/systemctl/systemctl-logind.c
+++ b/src/systemctl/systemctl-logind.c
@@ -168,7 +168,7 @@ int logind_check_inhibitors(enum action a) {
                                           ACTION_KEXEC) ? "shutdown" : "sleep"))
                         continue;
 
-                (void) get_process_comm(pid, &comm);
+                (void) pid_get_comm(pid, &comm);
                 user = uid_to_name(uid);
 
                 log_warning("Operation inhibited by \"%s\" (PID "PID_FMT" \"%s\", user %s), reason is \"%s\".",
diff --git a/src/systemctl/systemctl-show.c b/src/systemctl/systemctl-show.c
index c5ed72d066..0cb75d5dfc 100644
--- a/src/systemctl/systemctl-show.c
+++ b/src/systemctl/systemctl-show.c
@@ -626,7 +626,7 @@ static void print_status_info(
                                 if (arg_transport == BUS_TRANSPORT_LOCAL) {
                                         _cleanup_free_ char *comm = NULL;
 
-                                        (void) get_process_comm(i->main_pid, &comm);
+                                        (void) pid_get_comm(i->main_pid, &comm);
                                         if (comm)
                                                 printf(" (%s)", comm);
                                 }
@@ -661,7 +661,7 @@ static void print_status_info(
                         printf(PID_FMT, i->control_pid);
 
                         if (arg_transport == BUS_TRANSPORT_LOCAL) {
-                                (void) get_process_comm(i->control_pid, &c);
+                                (void) pid_get_comm(i->control_pid, &c);
                                 if (c)
                                         printf(" (%s)", c);
                         }
diff --git a/src/test/test-argv-util.c b/src/test/test-argv-util.c
index 79be836aed..5bf2903658 100644
--- a/src/test/test-argv-util.c
+++ b/src/test/test-argv-util.c
@@ -35,13 +35,13 @@ static void test_rename_process_now(const char *p, int ret) {
                 return;
 #endif
 
-        assert_se(get_process_comm(0, &comm) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_comm(0, &comm) >= 0);
         log_debug("comm = <%s>", comm);
         assert_se(strneq(comm, p, TASK_COMM_LEN-1));
         /* We expect comm to be at most 16 bytes (TASK_COMM_LEN). The kernel may raise this limit in the
          * future. We'd only check the initial part, at least until we recompile, but this will still pass. */
 
-        r = get_process_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, 0, &cmdline);
+        r = pid_get_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, 0, &cmdline);
         assert_se(r >= 0);
         /* we cannot expect cmdline to be renamed properly without privileges */
         if (geteuid() == 0) {
diff --git a/src/test/test-cgroup-util.c b/src/test/test-cgroup-util.c
index afa6283011..51f52d9a4e 100644
--- a/src/test/test-cgroup-util.c
+++ b/src/test/test-cgroup-util.c
@@ -194,35 +194,33 @@ TEST(proc) {
         _cleanup_closedir_ DIR *d = NULL;
         int r;
 
-        d = opendir("/proc");
-        assert_se(d);
+        assert_se(proc_dir_open(&d) >= 0);
 
-        FOREACH_DIRENT(de, d, break) {
+        for (;;) {
                 _cleanup_free_ char *path = NULL, *path_shifted = NULL, *session = NULL, *unit = NULL, *user_unit = NULL, *machine = NULL, *slice = NULL;
-                pid_t pid;
+                _cleanup_(pidref_done) PidRef pid = PIDREF_NULL;
                 uid_t uid = UID_INVALID;
 
-                if (!IN_SET(de->d_type, DT_DIR, DT_UNKNOWN))
+                r = proc_dir_read_pidref(d, &pid);
+                assert_se(r >= 0);
+
+                if (r == 0)
+                        break;
+
+                if (pidref_is_kernel_thread(&pid) != 0)
                         continue;
 
-                r = parse_pid(de->d_name, &pid);
-                if (r < 0)
-                        continue;
-
-                if (is_kernel_thread(pid))
-                        continue;
-
-                cg_pid_get_path(SYSTEMD_CGROUP_CONTROLLER, pid, &path);
-                cg_pid_get_path_shifted(pid, NULL, &path_shifted);
-                cg_pid_get_owner_uid(pid, &uid);
-                cg_pid_get_session(pid, &session);
-                cg_pid_get_unit(pid, &unit);
-                cg_pid_get_user_unit(pid, &user_unit);
-                cg_pid_get_machine_name(pid, &machine);
-                cg_pid_get_slice(pid, &slice);
+                cg_pid_get_path(SYSTEMD_CGROUP_CONTROLLER, pid.pid, &path);
+                cg_pid_get_path_shifted(pid.pid, NULL, &path_shifted);
+                cg_pid_get_owner_uid(pid.pid, &uid);
+                cg_pid_get_session(pid.pid, &session);
+                cg_pid_get_unit(pid.pid, &unit);
+                cg_pid_get_user_unit(pid.pid, &user_unit);
+                cg_pid_get_machine_name(pid.pid, &machine);
+                cg_pid_get_slice(pid.pid, &slice);
 
                 printf(PID_FMT"\t%s\t%s\t"UID_FMT"\t%s\t%s\t%s\t%s\t%s\n",
-                       pid,
+                       pid.pid,
                        path,
                        path_shifted,
                        uid,
diff --git a/src/test/test-cgroup.c b/src/test/test-cgroup.c
index c6e6b8e01a..0fbd6351a4 100644
--- a/src/test/test-cgroup.c
+++ b/src/test/test-cgroup.c
@@ -61,6 +61,10 @@ TEST(cg_create) {
 
         log_info("Paths for test:\n%s\n%s", test_a, test_b);
 
+        /* Possibly clean up left-overs from aboted previous runs */
+        (void) cg_trim(SYSTEMD_CGROUP_CONTROLLER, test_a, /* delete_root= */ true);
+        (void) cg_trim(SYSTEMD_CGROUP_CONTROLLER, test_b, /* delete_root= */ true);
+
         r = cg_create(SYSTEMD_CGROUP_CONTROLLER, test_a);
         if (IN_SET(r, -EPERM, -EACCES, -EROFS)) {
                 log_info_errno(r, "Skipping %s: %m", __func__);
diff --git a/src/test/test-proc-cmdline.c b/src/test/test-proc-cmdline.c
index 1d13656f62..8b5bbb079e 100644
--- a/src/test/test-proc-cmdline.c
+++ b/src/test/test-proc-cmdline.c
@@ -274,7 +274,7 @@ TEST(proc_cmdline_key_startswith) {
                 _cleanup_strv_free_ char **a = NULL, **b = NULL;        \
                 const char s[] = (nulstr);                              \
                                                                         \
-                /* This emulates get_process_cmdline_strv(). */         \
+                /* This emulates pid_get_cmdline_strv(). */         \
                 assert_se(a = strv_parse_nulstr_full(s, ELEMENTSOF(s),  \
                                                      /* drop_trailing_nuls = */ true)); \
                 assert_se(proc_cmdline_filter_pid1_args(a, &b) >= 0);   \
diff --git a/src/test/test-process-util.c b/src/test/test-process-util.c
index e3c0aa80ae..524bcceb97 100644
--- a/src/test/test-process-util.c
+++ b/src/test/test-process-util.c
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@
 #include "user-util.h"
 #include "virt.h"
 
-static void test_get_process_comm_one(pid_t pid) {
+static void test_pid_get_comm_one(pid_t pid) {
         struct stat st;
         _cleanup_free_ char *a = NULL, *c = NULL, *d = NULL, *f = NULL, *i = NULL;
         _cleanup_free_ char *env = NULL;
@@ -54,19 +54,19 @@ static void test_get_process_comm_one(pid_t pid) {
         xsprintf(path, "/proc/"PID_FMT"/comm", pid);
 
         if (stat(path, &st) == 0) {
-                assert_se(get_process_comm(pid, &a) >= 0);
+                assert_se(pid_get_comm(pid, &a) >= 0);
                 log_info("PID"PID_FMT" comm: '%s'", pid, a);
         } else
                 log_warning("%s not exist.", path);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(pid, 0, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &c) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(pid, 0, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &c) >= 0);
         log_info("PID"PID_FMT" cmdline: '%s'", pid, c);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(pid, 8, 0, &d) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(pid, 8, 0, &d) >= 0);
         log_info("PID"PID_FMT" cmdline truncated to 8: '%s'", pid, d);
 
         free(d);
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(pid, 1, 0, &d) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(pid, 1, 0, &d) >= 0);
         log_info("PID"PID_FMT" cmdline truncated to 1: '%s'", pid, d);
 
         r = get_process_ppid(pid, &e);
@@ -76,13 +76,13 @@ static void test_get_process_comm_one(pid_t pid) {
                 assert_se(e > 0);
         }
 
-        assert_se(is_kernel_thread(pid) == 0 || pid != 1);
+        assert_se(pid_is_kernel_thread(pid) == 0 || pid != 1);
 
         r = get_process_exe(pid, &f);
         assert_se(r >= 0 || r == -EACCES);
         log_info("PID"PID_FMT" exe: '%s'", pid, strna(f));
 
-        assert_se(get_process_uid(pid, &u) == 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_uid(pid, &u) == 0);
         log_info("PID"PID_FMT" UID: "UID_FMT, pid, u);
 
         assert_se(get_process_gid(pid, &g) == 0);
@@ -99,100 +99,101 @@ static void test_get_process_comm_one(pid_t pid) {
         log_info("PID"PID_FMT" $PATH: '%s'", pid, strna(i));
 }
 
-TEST(get_process_comm) {
+TEST(pid_get_comm) {
         if (saved_argc > 1) {
                 pid_t pid = 0;
 
                 (void) parse_pid(saved_argv[1], &pid);
-                test_get_process_comm_one(pid);
+                test_pid_get_comm_one(pid);
         } else {
-                TEST_REQ_RUNNING_SYSTEMD(test_get_process_comm_one(1));
-                test_get_process_comm_one(getpid());
+                TEST_REQ_RUNNING_SYSTEMD(test_pid_get_comm_one(1));
+                test_pid_get_comm_one(getpid());
         }
 }
 
-static void test_get_process_cmdline_one(pid_t pid) {
+static void test_pid_get_cmdline_one(pid_t pid) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *c = NULL, *d = NULL, *e = NULL, *f = NULL, *g = NULL, *h = NULL, *joined = NULL;
         _cleanup_strv_free_ char **strv_a = NULL, **strv_b = NULL;
         int r;
 
-        r = get_process_cmdline(pid, SIZE_MAX, 0, &c);
+        r = pid_get_cmdline(pid, SIZE_MAX, 0, &c);
         log_info("PID "PID_FMT": %s", pid, r >= 0 ? c : errno_to_name(r));
 
-        r = get_process_cmdline(pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &d);
+        r = pid_get_cmdline(pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &d);
         log_info("      %s", r >= 0 ? d : errno_to_name(r));
 
-        r = get_process_cmdline(pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE, &e);
+        r = pid_get_cmdline(pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE, &e);
         log_info("      %s", r >= 0 ? e : errno_to_name(r));
 
-        r = get_process_cmdline(pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE | PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &f);
+        r = pid_get_cmdline(pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE | PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &f);
         log_info("      %s", r >= 0 ? f : errno_to_name(r));
 
-        r = get_process_cmdline(pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE_POSIX, &g);
+        r = pid_get_cmdline(pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE_POSIX, &g);
         log_info("      %s", r >= 0 ? g : errno_to_name(r));
 
-        r = get_process_cmdline(pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE_POSIX | PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &h);
+        r = pid_get_cmdline(pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE_POSIX | PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &h);
         log_info("      %s", r >= 0 ? h : errno_to_name(r));
 
-        r = get_process_cmdline_strv(pid, 0, &strv_a);
+        r = pid_get_cmdline_strv(pid, 0, &strv_a);
         if (r >= 0)
                 assert_se(joined = strv_join(strv_a, "\", \""));
         log_info("      \"%s\"", r >= 0 ? joined : errno_to_name(r));
 
         joined = mfree(joined);
 
-        r = get_process_cmdline_strv(pid, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &strv_b);
+        r = pid_get_cmdline_strv(pid, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &strv_b);
         if (r >= 0)
                 assert_se(joined = strv_join(strv_b, "\", \""));
         log_info("      \"%s\"", r >= 0 ? joined : errno_to_name(r));
 }
 
-TEST(get_process_cmdline) {
+TEST(pid_get_cmdline) {
         _cleanup_closedir_ DIR *d = NULL;
+        int r;
 
-        assert_se(d = opendir("/proc"));
+        assert_se(proc_dir_open(&d) >= 0);
 
-        FOREACH_DIRENT(de, d, return) {
+        for (;;) {
                 pid_t pid;
 
-                if (de->d_type != DT_DIR)
-                        continue;
+                r = proc_dir_read(d, &pid);
+                assert_se(r >= 0);
 
-                if (parse_pid(de->d_name, &pid) < 0)
-                        continue;
+                if (r == 0) /* EOF */
+                        break;
 
-                test_get_process_cmdline_one(pid);
+                test_pid_get_cmdline_one(pid);
         }
 }
 
-static void test_get_process_comm_escape_one(const char *input, const char *output) {
+static void test_pid_get_comm_escape_one(const char *input, const char *output) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *n = NULL;
 
         log_debug("input: <%s> — output: <%s>", input, output);
 
         assert_se(prctl(PR_SET_NAME, input) >= 0);
-        assert_se(get_process_comm(0, &n) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_comm(0, &n) >= 0);
 
         log_debug("got: <%s>", n);
 
         assert_se(streq_ptr(n, output));
 }
 
-TEST(get_process_comm_escape) {
+TEST(pid_get_comm_escape) {
         _cleanup_free_ char *saved = NULL;
 
-        assert_se(get_process_comm(0, &saved) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_comm(0, &saved) >= 0);
 
-        test_get_process_comm_escape_one("", "");
-        test_get_process_comm_escape_one("foo", "foo");
-        test_get_process_comm_escape_one("012345678901234", "012345678901234");
-        test_get_process_comm_escape_one("0123456789012345", "012345678901234");
-        test_get_process_comm_escape_one("äöüß", "\\303\\244\\303\\266\\303\\274\\303\\237");
-        test_get_process_comm_escape_one("xäöüß", "x\\303\\244\\303\\266\\303\\274\\303\\237");
-        test_get_process_comm_escape_one("xxäöüß", "xx\\303\\244\\303\\266\\303\\274\\303\\237");
-        test_get_process_comm_escape_one("xxxäöüß", "xxx\\303\\244\\303\\266\\303\\274\\303\\237");
-        test_get_process_comm_escape_one("xxxxäöüß", "xxxx\\303\\244\\303\\266\\303\\274\\303\\237");
-        test_get_process_comm_escape_one("xxxxxäöüß", "xxxxx\\303\\244\\303\\266\\303\\274\\303\\237");
+        test_pid_get_comm_escape_one("", "");
+        test_pid_get_comm_escape_one("foo", "foo");
+        test_pid_get_comm_escape_one("012345678901234", "012345678901234");
+        test_pid_get_comm_escape_one("0123456789012345", "012345678901234");
+        test_pid_get_comm_escape_one("äöüß", "\\303\\244\\303\\266\\303\\274\\303\\237");
+        test_pid_get_comm_escape_one("xäöüß", "x\\303\\244\\303\\266\\303\\274\\303\\237");
+        test_pid_get_comm_escape_one("xxäöüß", "xx\\303\\244\\303\\266\\303\\274\\303\\237");
+        test_pid_get_comm_escape_one("xxxäöüß", "xxx\\303\\244\\303\\266\\303\\274\\303\\237");
+        test_pid_get_comm_escape_one("xxxxäöüß", "xxxx\\303\\244\\303\\266\\303\\274\\303\\237");
+        test_pid_get_comm_escape_one("xxxxxäöüß", "xxxxx\\303\\244\\303\\266\\303\\274\\303\\237");
 
         assert_se(prctl(PR_SET_NAME, saved) >= 0);
 }
@@ -207,11 +208,11 @@ TEST(pid_is_unwaited) {
         } else {
                 int status;
 
-                waitpid(pid, &status, 0);
-                assert_se(!pid_is_unwaited(pid));
+                assert_se(waitpid(pid, &status, 0) == pid);
+                assert_se(pid_is_unwaited(pid) == 0);
         }
-        assert_se(pid_is_unwaited(getpid_cached()));
-        assert_se(!pid_is_unwaited(-1));
+        assert_se(pid_is_unwaited(getpid_cached()) > 0);
+        assert_se(pid_is_unwaited(-1) < 0);
 }
 
 TEST(pid_is_alive) {
@@ -224,11 +225,11 @@ TEST(pid_is_alive) {
         } else {
                 int status;
 
-                waitpid(pid, &status, 0);
-                assert_se(!pid_is_alive(pid));
+                assert_se(waitpid(pid, &status, 0) == pid);
+                assert_se(pid_is_alive(pid) == 0);
         }
-        assert_se(pid_is_alive(getpid_cached()));
-        assert_se(!pid_is_alive(-1));
+        assert_se(pid_is_alive(getpid_cached()) > 0);
+        assert_se(pid_is_alive(-1) < 0);
 }
 
 TEST(personality) {
@@ -253,7 +254,7 @@ TEST(personality) {
 #endif
 }
 
-TEST(get_process_cmdline_harder) {
+TEST(pid_get_cmdline_harder) {
         char path[] = "/tmp/test-cmdlineXXXXXX";
         _cleanup_close_ int fd = -EBADF;
         _cleanup_free_ char *line = NULL;
@@ -273,7 +274,7 @@ TEST(get_process_cmdline_harder) {
 
 #if HAVE_VALGRIND_VALGRIND_H
         /* valgrind patches open(/proc//cmdline)
-         * so, test_get_process_cmdline_harder fails always
+         * so, test_pid_get_cmdline_harder fails always
          * See https://github.com/systemd/systemd/pull/3555#issuecomment-226564908 */
         if (RUNNING_ON_VALGRIND) {
                 log_info("Skipping %s: running on valgrind", __func__);
@@ -323,56 +324,56 @@ TEST(get_process_cmdline_harder) {
 
         assert_se(prctl(PR_SET_NAME, "testa") >= 0);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, 0, &line) == -ENOENT);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, 0, &line) == -ENOENT);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "[testa]"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK | PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK | PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "\"[testa]\"")); /* quoting is enabled here */
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 0, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 0, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, ""));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 1, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 1, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         assert_se(streq(line, "…"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 2, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 2, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         assert_se(streq(line, "[…"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 3, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 3, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         assert_se(streq(line, "[t…"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 4, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 4, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         assert_se(streq(line, "[te…"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 5, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 5, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         assert_se(streq(line, "[tes…"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 6, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 6, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         assert_se(streq(line, "[test…"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 7, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 7, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         assert_se(streq(line, "[testa]"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 8, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 8, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         assert_se(streq(line, "[testa]"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline_strv(0, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &args) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline_strv(0, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &args) >= 0);
         assert_se(strv_equal(args, STRV_MAKE("[testa]")));
         args = strv_free(args);
 
@@ -380,135 +381,135 @@ TEST(get_process_cmdline_harder) {
 
         assert_se(write(fd, "foo\0bar", 8) == 8);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, 0, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, 0, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "foo bar"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         assert_se(streq(line, "foo bar"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline_strv(0, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &args) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline_strv(0, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &args) >= 0);
         assert_se(strv_equal(args, STRV_MAKE("foo", "bar")));
         args = strv_free(args);
 
         assert_se(write(fd, "quux", 4) == 4);
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, 0, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, 0, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "foo bar quux"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "foo bar quux"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 1, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 1, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "…"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 2, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 2, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "f…"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 3, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 3, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "fo…"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 4, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 4, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "foo…"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 5, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 5, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "foo …"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 6, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 6, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "foo b…"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 7, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 7, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "foo ba…"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 8, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 8, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "foo bar…"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 9, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 9, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "foo bar …"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 10, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 10, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "foo bar q…"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 11, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 11, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "foo bar qu…"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 12, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 12, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "foo bar quux"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 13, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 13, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "foo bar quux"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 14, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 14, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "foo bar quux"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 1000, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 1000, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "foo bar quux"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline_strv(0, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &args) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline_strv(0, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &args) >= 0);
         assert_se(strv_equal(args, STRV_MAKE("foo", "bar", "quux")));
         args = strv_free(args);
 
         assert_se(ftruncate(fd, 0) >= 0);
         assert_se(prctl(PR_SET_NAME, "aaaa bbbb cccc") >= 0);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, 0, &line) == -ENOENT);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, 0, &line) == -ENOENT);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "[aaaa bbbb cccc]"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 10, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 10, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "[aaaa bbb…"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 11, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 11, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "[aaaa bbbb…"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, 12, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, 12, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("'%s'", line);
         assert_se(streq(line, "[aaaa bbbb …"));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline_strv(0, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &args) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline_strv(0, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &args) >= 0);
         assert_se(strv_equal(args, STRV_MAKE("[aaaa bbbb cccc]")));
         args = strv_free(args);
 
@@ -523,19 +524,19 @@ TEST(get_process_cmdline_harder) {
         assert_se(write(fd, CMDLINE1, sizeof CMDLINE1) == sizeof CMDLINE1);
         assert_se(ftruncate(fd, sizeof CMDLINE1) == 0);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("got: ==%s==", line);
         log_debug("exp: ==%s==", EXPECT1);
         assert_se(streq(line, EXPECT1));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE_POSIX, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE_POSIX, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("got: ==%s==", line);
         log_debug("exp: ==%s==", EXPECT1p);
         assert_se(streq(line, EXPECT1p));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline_strv(0, 0, &args) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline_strv(0, 0, &args) >= 0);
         assert_se(strv_equal(args, EXPECT1v));
         args = strv_free(args);
 
@@ -548,19 +549,19 @@ TEST(get_process_cmdline_harder) {
         assert_se(write(fd, CMDLINE2, sizeof CMDLINE2) == sizeof CMDLINE2);
         assert_se(ftruncate(fd, sizeof CMDLINE2) == 0);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("got: ==%s==", line);
         log_debug("exp: ==%s==", EXPECT2);
         assert_se(streq(line, EXPECT2));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE_POSIX, &line) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(0, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_QUOTE_POSIX, &line) >= 0);
         log_debug("got: ==%s==", line);
         log_debug("exp: ==%s==", EXPECT2p);
         assert_se(streq(line, EXPECT2p));
         line = mfree(line);
 
-        assert_se(get_process_cmdline_strv(0, 0, &args) >= 0);
+        assert_se(pid_get_cmdline_strv(0, 0, &args) >= 0);
         assert_se(strv_equal(args, EXPECT2v));
         args = strv_free(args);
 
@@ -811,8 +812,8 @@ TEST(get_process_ppid) {
 
                 assert_se(r >= 0);
 
-                assert_se(get_process_cmdline(pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &c1) >= 0);
-                assert_se(get_process_cmdline(ppid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &c2) >= 0);
+                assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(pid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &c1) >= 0);
+                assert_se(pid_get_cmdline(ppid, SIZE_MAX, PROCESS_CMDLINE_COMM_FALLBACK, &c2) >= 0);
 
                 log_info("Parent of " PID_FMT " (%s) is " PID_FMT " (%s).", pid, c1, ppid, c2);
 
diff --git a/src/tty-ask-password-agent/tty-ask-password-agent.c b/src/tty-ask-password-agent/tty-ask-password-agent.c
index 87c610bc73..3a30bfe042 100644
--- a/src/tty-ask-password-agent/tty-ask-password-agent.c
+++ b/src/tty-ask-password-agent/tty-ask-password-agent.c
@@ -207,7 +207,7 @@ static int process_one_password_file(const char *filename) {
         if (not_after > 0 && now(CLOCK_MONOTONIC) > not_after)
                 return 0;
 
-        if (pid > 0 && !pid_is_alive(pid))
+        if (pid > 0 && pid_is_alive(pid) <= 0)
                 return 0;
 
         switch (arg_action) {